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Biology 🐄🍏🐛🤰🏻🧬 > M8 > Flashcards

M8 Flashcards

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1
Q

8.20 kidn tech

how does peritoneal dialysis work?

A

ABDOMEN

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2
Q

8.2 homeostasis, FLs, mechanisms

why is homeostasis necessary?

A
  • constant intl environ -> enzymes can function effectively -> optimises metabolic efficiency -> ensures that biological reactions can occur quickly enough to sustain life
  • contant intl environ -> ensures the efficient transport of substances around the body and in and out of cells
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3
Q

8.2 homeostasis, FLs, mechanisms

vot is the receptor in temp NFL?

control centre?

A

recep: thermoreceptors in skin, hypothalamus (according to the textbook)

control centre: hypothal either activates heating or cooling mechanisms

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4
Q

8.2 homeostasis, FLs, mechanisms

what is…

effector + resp when stim is ^ body temp

A
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5
Q

8.2 homeostasis, FLs, mechanisms

what is

effector + resp when stim is 📉 body temp

A

🥶💪🏻 -> 🔥

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6
Q

BGL neg feedback loop

HIGH BGL - what happens?

what is the:
- receptor?
- control centre?
- effector?
- response?

A

RECEPTOR - high BGL detected by beta cells in the panc

CONTROL CENTRE: pancreas itself

which stimulates release of INSULIN in the blood

EFFECTOR: liver and body cells

RESPONSE: Most cells take up more glucose
Liver stores glucose as glycogen

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7
Q

BGL neg feedback loop

LOW BGL - what happens?

what is the:
- receptor?
- control centre?
- effector?
- response?

A

RECEPTOR - low BGL detected by alpha cells in the panc

CONTROL CENTRE: pancreas itself

which stimulates release of GLUCAGON in the blood

EFFECTOR: liver

RESPONSE: Liver breaks down glycogen into glucose and releases it into the blood

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8
Q

8.3 endotherm adap

As the external temperature increases, the metabolic rate of endotherms _________

A

decreases 👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻👇🏻

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9
Q

8.3 endotherm adap

what are some behav adapns?

A
  • 👅ing -> more heat evap via saliva
  • 🌙 noc activity
  • 🌆 -> 🌾 (migration)
  • movement to shaded or ☀ny areas
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10
Q

8.3 endotherm adap

what are some struct adapns?

A
  • hella large 👂🏻s
  • large SA:V ratio for hot environments, small SA:V ratio (+ rounded shape) for cold environments
  • 🐤 feathers, fur, hair
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11
Q

8.3 endotherm adap

what are some physiol adapns?

A
  • 🩸 vasodil or vasocon
  • 👆🏻 or 👇🏻 in metabol rates
  • 🥶💪🏻 shivering
  • 🥵💦ing / 🩳ing
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12
Q

8.5 plant adap - water balance

what are PROCESSES and MECHANISMS plants used to maintain water balance? (ie not just structures to conserve water)

A
  1. regulate opening + closing of stomata
  2. curling of the leaves
  3. changing orientation of leaves (stomates ain’t facing directly into sun) + shedding leaves (⬇ overall water lost)
  4. growing woody fruit RATHER THAN fleshy fruit

extra: ⬇ intl leaf temp (this one is more like a structure rather than process, but, good to know: white hairs on leaf to reflect light)

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13
Q

8.5 plant adap - water balance

what is an eg of a plant that regulates opening + closing of stomata?

A

Eucalyptus largiflorens

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14
Q

8.5 plant adap - water balance

what is an eg of a plant that curls its leaves to maintain water balance?

A

Desert spinifex grass

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15
Q

8.5 plant adap - water balance

a) what is an eg of a plant that changes orientation of leaves?

b) what is an eg of a plant that sheds leaves?

A

Mulga (Acacia aneura) does both

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16
Q

8.5 plant adap - water balance

what is an eg of a plant that produces woody rather than fleshy fruit?

A

Banksia serrata

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17
Q

8.5 plant adap - water balance

how does 👇🏻 intl leaf temp work in the grand scheme of maintaining water balance?

A

WHY? BECAUSE PLANTS PRIMARILY LOSE WATER THROUGH TRANSPIRATION (ie stomata opening up and releasing water) BECAUSE THE PLANTS ARE HOT AF

BUT IF THERE ARE OTHER MECHANISMS FOR THE PLANTS TO MAINTAIN INTERNAL LEAF TEMPERATURE, THEN THERE REALLY IS A VERY LIMITED NEED TO OPEN UP THE STOMATES (plants use less water for evaporative cooling)

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18
Q

8.4 hormones + nerves

what is a good def of hormones?

A

signalling molecules used by the body to regulate physiology and behav

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19
Q

8.4 hormones + nerves

what is the signal transduction process? (horm)

A
  1. reception
  2. transduction
  3. response
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20
Q

8.4 hormones + nerves

the nervous syst relays information in the form of _________________________

A

NERVE IMPULSES

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21
Q

8.4 hormones + nerves

please correctly draw and label the 3 types of neurons

A

remember cell body and nucleus aren’t the same thing

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22
Q

8.4 hormones + nerves

movement of nerve impulses is facilitated by _______(a)________ along the _________(b)__________, triggering the _____________(c)______________

A

(a) transmission of an action potential
(b) nerve axon
(c) release of neurotransmitters

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23
Q

8.4 hormones + nerves

ok, so you know osmoreceptors is one of the types of receptors. now, what specifically does it do?

A
  • detects changes in osmotic pressure
  • osm pressure in the blood is determined by the concentration of substances dissolved in the blood plasma -> thus regulate water to keep within tol limits
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24
Q

8.6 genetic diseases: cau + eff

what are the causes of CF? (3)

A
  • inheriting 2 mutated CFTR genes (bc it’s recessive)
  • most common mutation - delta f508 (deletion) -> frameshift mutation
  • protein misfolded -> lack of CFTR protein on epithelial surface -> cannot pump out chloride ions, thus leaving thick secretions
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25
Q

8.6 genetic diseases: cau + eff

what are the possible treatments for CF? (4)

A
  • inhalers
  • chest physiotherapy -> help patient cough up mucus
  • replacement of pancreatic enzymes (bc they break down the pancreas): blocking the pancreas’ production of enzymes but giving someone tablets orally so they still get the enzyme
  • lung transplant
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26
Q

8.7 environ exposure diseases: cau + eff

what is the cause of melanoma?

A

unprotected exposure to 🌞 (look at this innocent little guy, so innocent but can be deadly!) OR artificial tanning beds

  • must also mention how sun’s strong rays cause pyrimidine dimers (eg Thymine bases rotate out) -> disrupt cell reading DNA -> mutation
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27
Q

8.7 environ exposure diseases: cau + eff

what is the EFFECT OF MELANOMA?

A
  • formation of MALIGNANT MELANOCYTES in the skin
  • potential METASTASIS to other organs and lymph nodes
  • TUMOUR growth and INVASION of surrounding tissues
  • PAIN, BLEEDING, SKIN ULCERATIONNN
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28
Q

8.8 nutritional diseases: cau + eff

what is the CAUSE of obesity?

A
  • overeating + poor dietary choices 🍰
  • sedentary lifestyle 🪑
  • lack of access to nutritious food 🥪
  • genetics 🧬
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29
Q

8.8 nutritional diseases: cau + eff

what is the EFFECT of obesity?

A
  • ^ risk of cardiovasular disease, ^ risk of type 2 diabetes, ^ risk of certain cancers
  • reduced fertility, reproductive problems
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30
Q

8.11 treatment + future directions

what are the possible TREATMENTS for melanoma? (5)

A
  • surgical excision of localised melanoma
  • chemotherapy (though not as effective for melanoma)
  • radiation
  • targeted therapies
  • immunotherapy
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31
Q

8.11 treatment + future directions

how does radiation work for treating melanoma?

A
  • When cells are exposed to X-rays, normal cells can repair their DNA more easily than cancer cells can
  • X-rays damage the DNA of the cancer cells and kill them
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32
Q

8.11 treatment + future directions

how do targeted therapies work for treating melanoma?

A

by interrupting the pathways that cause the uncontrolled division of melanoma cells

  • Using drugs that affect the molecules that control the growth of tumour cells → effectively stops the growth and spread of tumour to other organs
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33
Q

8.11 treatment + future directions

how does immunotherapy work for treating melanoma?

A
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34
Q

8.11 treatment + future directions

what are the future directions of treating melanoma?

A
  • currently only 2 immunotherapy drugs avail for use (not effective on all patients) -> further research required
  • use of vaccines to treat melanoma is in early stages -> further research to refine this process and make it more consistently effective
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35
Q

8.15 👂🏻🦻

how does sound travel through the ear? this will also give you an understanding of the STRUCTURES of the ear which will help with technologies

A
36
Q

8.15 👂🏻🦻

what are the two types of hearing loss, and what do they involve?

A
  1. sensorineural - damage to inner ear and/or its associated nerves
  2. conductive - damage to middle or outer ear
37
Q

8.15 👂🏻🦻

COCHLEAR IMPLANTS

a) who used for?
b) consists of? how does it work?

A

a) for people who are profoundly deaf, who have sensorineural hearing loss

b) outer part contains microphone, inner part includes an electrode that feeds into cochlear + directly stimulates the cochlear nerve - bypassing outer, middle and innear ear

38
Q

8.15 👂🏻🦻

ultimately, cochlear implants produce what type of sound?

A

People who have cochlear implants don’t hear the exact same thing as people who have normal healthy ears, but they’re able to interpret these vibrations and understand speech after some time!

39
Q

8.15 👂🏻🦻

BONE CONDUC. IMPLANTS

a) who used for?
b) consists of? how does it work?

A

a) ppl with conductive or unilateral (one ear) hearing loss - their cochlea still works fine

b) microphone detects sound -> create vibrations 💤💤💤💤💤💤 that move along the SKULL, transmit vibrations through bone to inner ear, bypassing DEFECTIVE outer and middle ear

40
Q

8.15 👂🏻🦻

HEARING AIDS 🦻🦻🦻🦻🦻🦻🦻

a) who used for?
b) consists of? how does it work?

A

a) assumes that the person who uses this still has all the natural functioning of the ear, ie outer/middle/innear ear still working

b) MAGNIFY SOUND VIBRATIONS (ie make sound louder) better transm. to middle and inner ear

  • mic converts sound -> digital signal
  • amplifier ^ strength of dig sig
  • speaker produces ampl sound into ear
41
Q

8.15 👂🏻🦻

✍🏻 adv + disadv of hearing loss technologies (3)

A

:)

42
Q

8.17 👁 & 👓

would you be a dear and label the eyes?

A

MUST have labelled all the highlighted parts

43
Q

8.17 👁 & 👓

what is the difference between the vitreous and aqueous humour?

A
44
Q

8.17 👁 & 👓

how do cataracts affect vision?

A

characterised by opacity (translucency, cloudiness) of the lens

45
Q

8.17 👁 & 👓

how does glaucoma affect vision?

A

glaucoma = build up of pressure in eye (due to blocked drainage canal) -> damages optic nerve + the blood vessels which carry blood to the retina

46
Q

8.17 👁 & 👓

how does retinal detachment and macular degeneration affect vision?

A

RD: when retina begins to separate from sclera which contains the blood vessels that provide necessary oxygen and nutrients (first sign of retinal detachment when ‘floaters’ present, sudden flashes of light/shadow in vision)

MD: when retina begins to degrade → loss of sharpness in vision

47
Q

8.17 👁 & 👓

what type of lenses are required for myopia and hyperopia?

A

convex for hyperopia
concave for myopia

48
Q

8.17 👁 & 👓

how does LASIK work? describe its process

A

ie laser vision correction

  1. A small circular flap is created in the 
   cornea using a precise metal blade

  2. The flap is then folded back to reveal 
   a layer of the cornea called the stroma

  3. A laser is then used to vaporise 
   material in the corneal stroma (to 
   reshape the cornea) to correct for the 
   refractive error in the eye

   4. The flap is replaced, eye heals
49
Q

8.19 kidneys

how does the kidney perform its filtration, reabsorption and secretion duties?

A
  • filtering done by nephrons, occurs in junction btwn glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule
  • blood pressure in G is so high -> substances small enough move from bloodstream to tubules (except blood cells)
  • reabsorption of all substances required by the body occurs along the tubules and in the collecting duct
  • secretion of additional wastes into the tubules occurs along the length of the nephron
50
Q

8.19 kidneys

✍🏻 what are the causes of chronic kidney disease? ie how does loss of function cause kidney failure/dysfunction?

A

:)

51
Q

8.19 kidneys

✍🏻 how does haemodialysis work? fbkbgfgbalgbrgblrgilrgip

A

:)

52
Q

8.19 kidneys

✍🏻 the adv and disadv of haemodialysis

focus on disadvantages

A

:)

53
Q

8.10 inc/prev of nutr + environ exp diseases

what are case-control studies?

can you give an example of one?

A

compare ppl with the disease (cases) to ppl w/o the disease (control) to look for diff in exp to the possible causes of the disease

eg RICHARD DOLL 1947 compared patients with lung cancer to patients with other conditions (smoking one factor, he was first to suggest link btwn 🚬 and lung cancer)

54
Q

8.10 inc/prev of nutr + environ exp diseases

what are cohort studies?

can you give an example of one?

A

studying 2 or more similar groups of people free of the disease - these groups differ in one main factor: their exposure to the potential cause of the disease

eg A.B. Hill 1951 ENG studied >40,000 👩🏻‍⚕️s, one grp smokes, other grp non-smokers

55
Q

8.10 inc/prev of nutr + environ exp diseases

4 CRITERIA EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES MUST HAVE

A
  • LONG TIME PERIOD
  • LARGE SAMPLE SIZE
  • COLLECT A RANGE OF RELEV DATA (in case other factor influencing study’s results)
  • SCIENTIFICALLY VALID TECHNIQUES (reducing bias, objective measurement methods)
56
Q

8.10 inc/prev of nutr + environ exp diseases

what can reduce random error?

A

large sample sizes

57
Q

8.10 inc/prev of nutr + environ exp diseases

what are the benefits of engaging in epidemiological studies? (4)

A
  • OVERARCHING: potentially saves lives
  • helps determine likely cause of disease / whether some groups more at risk to develop
  • helps develop strategies to best control disease
  • helps eval the effectiveness of strategies in place to treat/control disease (eg pub health campaigns, inform public policy + law making)
58
Q

8.10 inc/prev of nutr + environ exp diseases

✍🏻 examples of the benefits of engaging in epidemiological studies

A

should have asbestos to mesothelioma

should also have BRCA1 and BRCA2 link to breast cancer

59
Q

8.10 inc/prev of nutr + environ exp diseases

pima epidemiological study was good why? (6)

A

✔ 13 years, 1728 indvls
✔ cohort study: differed by lvl of phys activity
✔ diabetes diagnosis objective means -> glucose test
✔ trained interviewers + scientifically valid questionnaire → reduced both interviewer and measurement bias
✔ data excluded from analysis if individuals were thought to have incorrectly reported activity levels → reduced recall bias
✔ peer reviewed before publication

60
Q

8.14 prevention

for a PHC to be effective, it must be…

A
  • able to reach many diff groups in a pop
  • persuasive and remembered
61
Q

8.14 prevention

what are some limitations of PHCs?

A
  • Uncertain whether decreases in a particular disease are attributed to the campaign only, as other factors would have influenced this reduction
  • Public health campaigns are often not enough by themselves to stop people from engaging with harmful causes of disease; legislation needed
62
Q

8.14 prevention

in what ways does genetic engineering help prevent disease? (4)

A
  1. gene therapy
  2. production of pharmaceuticals and vaccines
  3. genetic/embryo screening (testing)
  4. prevent nutritional diseases (eg via Golden 🌾)
63
Q

8.14 prevention

how does gene therapy work to prevent non-infectious disease? give an example to support your answer

A

Replacing damaged genes with normal genes within cells

  • eg PKU - introduce the dominant allele for the PAH gene into the liver cells, the liver would then function normally and produce phenylalanine hydroxylase and thus could produce tyrosine (still in early stages)
64
Q

8.14 prevention

how does production of pharmaceuticals and vaccines prevent non-infectious disease? give an example to support your answer

A

Genetic engineering techniques are used to produce vaccines such as Cervarix which are effective in preventing infection by HPV which could lead to cancers

nearly 100% effective

65
Q

8.14 prevention

how does genetic and embryo screening help prevent non-infectious disease? give an example to support your answer

A

GENETIC TESTING for individuals

Helps to identify one or more gene mutations (+ combinations of these) in people with the disease to predict predisposition or susceptibility to disease, essential for disease prevention

66
Q

8.14 prevention

phenylalanine is an _____________

A

amino acid

67
Q

8.14 prevention

which enzyme reacts with phenyl to create the amino acid tyrosine?

A

Phenylalanine hydroxylase

68
Q

8.15 👂🏻🦻

A
  1. RECOGNISE that it’s a COCHLEAR IMPLANT
  2. The answer is (d)
69
Q

8.5 plant adap - water balance

how does the curling of leaves work specifically to maintain water balance?

A

less of 🍃 SA is exposed directly to atmosphere

  • curled leaves = water transpired remains close contact with 🍃
  • -> high conc of water adjac to 🍃 surface -> moves across conc gradient of water back into 🌳 (plant)
70
Q

8.5 plant adap - water balance

how specifically do waxy epidermal cuticles and sunken stomata maintain water balance?

A

reduce the evaporation of water from the plant therefore water loss is minimised

wec: waterproof, reflect heat (a major cause of water loss through evapor)

ss: impede air flow across the stomatal pore and reduce transpiration

WATER ALWAYS MOVES DOWN A CONCENTRATION GRADIENT, THEREFORE IF THERE IS MOIST AIR AROUND LEAF, LESS WATER WILL BE TRANSPIRED. IF AIR IS DRY AROUND LEAF, THEN WATER WILL TRANSPIRE FAST.

71
Q

8.5 plant adap - water balance

how do hairy leaves maintain water balance

A

trap water in immediate vicinity (keeps air around plant humid)

creates a barrier to evaporation -> allows plant’s stomates to remain open for longer as little water is lost

72
Q

8.6 genetic diseases: cau + eff

if you need to talk about another disease other than CF, what do you talk about?

A

PKU!

  • caused by mutation of the gene on chromosome 12 that codes for phenylaline hydroxylase (PAH)
  • could result in a small head and delayed mental development (if left untreated)
73
Q

8.7 environ exposure diseases: cau + eff

if you need to talk about another disease other than melanoma, what do you talk about?

A

asbestosis and mesothelioma 😢

  • inhaling asbestos fibres cause an inflammatory reaction in the lung tissue -> scarring/stiffening tissue -> breathing becomes hard, reduces amount of oxygen taken up by blood
  • effect - persistent cough, chest pain, enlarged fingertips
74
Q

8.17 👁 & 👓

what specifically causes hyperopia?

A

either the eyeball is too short or the lens is not able to refract light sufficiently -> focal point behind retina -> image blurred/not sharp

75
Q

8.17 👁 & 👓

what specifically causes myopia?

A

the eyeball is too long -> light focuses in front of retina -> image blurred/not sharp

76
Q

8.15 👂🏻🦻

how specifically does sound pass through the inner ear to the brain?

A

when a wave moves from fluid-filled canals of cochlea from oval window, it pushes up on the basilar membrane

  • this causes bending of hair cells against tectorial membrane -> stimulus that transforms kinetic energy of wave into electrical energy of nerve impulse sent along auditory nerve to brain
77
Q

8.15 👂🏻🦻

what is the function of the Organ of Corti?

A

convert vibrations in the fluid of the cochlea into electrochemical signals

78
Q

8.17 👁 & 👓

what is the structure labelled Z?

A

iris

79
Q

8.5 plants maintain water

describe how the features of this plant can assist in reducing water loss

A

leaves have been reduced to tiny spines, which reduces the SA over which water can be lost by transpiration

succulents have a habit of storing water

80
Q

8.14 prevention

how can information from DNA sequencing be used to prevent genetic disease?

A
  • Gene therapy (replacing mutant genes) eg CF
  • IVF preimplantation screening (ask yourself hmmm what is this?)
  • SNPs genetic markers for heritable diseases eg 170 common genetic variants PrCA, 35 genes linked to Parkinson’s disease
81
Q

8.4 hormones and nervous systems

what do “peripheral nerves” do?

A

link receptors and effectors to the central nervous system

82
Q

8.14 prevention

how does a normal CFTR gene get introduced into a patient’s body?

A

delivered to the lungs via a nasal spray containing recombinant viruses or liposomes

83
Q

8.15 👂🏻🦻

how SPECIFICALLY do cochlear implants work?

A
  1. Microphone detects and amplifies sound waves
  2. Sent to speech processor (converts sound waves → electrical signals)
  3. Electrical signals sent to a transmitter (outside of ear)
  4. Transmitter sends radio waves to implanted receiver
  5. Which picks up radio waves, turns them into electrical signals
  6. Electrical signals go to the electrodes (which excites the auditory nerve)
84
Q

8.10 inc/prev of nutr + environ exp diseases

what do you need to include when writing an epidemiological study?

A
  • a clear IV and DV
  • at least 2 steps to ensure validity (eg controlled variable, a control group, set parameters)
85
Q

what are the limitations of epidemiological studies?

A

Potential bias that may occur - for eg if researchers have a preconceived idea about what is causing a particular disease, it may affect the groups within society that they choose to participate in the study. This could lead to relevant factors being missed because a particular group of people was not included in the study.

86
Q

how specifically does the brain detect light/vision?

A

Rods and cones in the retina translate the light into an ELECTRICAL SIGNAL that travels from the optic nerve to the brain

cones: colour vision

Biology 🐄🍏🐛🤰🏻🧬 (6 decks)

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