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Biology 🐄🍏🐛🤰🏻🧬 > M5 > Flashcards

M5 Flashcards

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1
Q

m(number), subheading, # in excel

A

[answer]

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2
Q

m5, reprod, #4/5

right, so the hypothalamus has released GnRH -> stimulated AntPG to secrete FSH + LH, what happens next?

A
  1. in ovary, FSH + LH promote oestrogen prodcn, follicle grows (GraaF moves to ovary surface, bulges)
  2. 🩸 lvl of oestrogens rising + cells lining foll secrete oestradiol -> stim. surge LH
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3
Q

m5, reprod, #4/5

process of fertsn? (4)

bc apparently watching the great sperm race in yr10 was not enough

A
  1. sperm use enzymes to dissolve + penetrate outer layer of egg
  2. molecules on sperm surface bind to receptors on egg cell memb -> nucleus of sperm enters cytopl of egg
  3. egg surface changes (no other sperm can enter)
  4. fusion of the haploid egg and sperm results in a diploid zygote cell
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4
Q

m5, reprod, #4/5

which hormns drop right before birth?

A

progesterone, oestrogen + relaxin

  • p: helps maintain 🤰🏻
  • r: inhibits contractions
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5
Q

m5, reprod, #4/5

what is the parturition PFL?

A

ugly formatting for you to remember

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6
Q

m5, reprod, #4/5

general important things to 🧠 abt oestrogen

  • where is it produced? (2)
  • what is its role? (4)
A
  • Produced by ovaries and later by placenta

Helps uterus GROW, maintains UTERINE LINING, steps up 🩸 CIRCULATION + TRIGGERS the development of developing fetus’ ORGANS

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7
Q

m5, reprod, #4/5
ok, so you know progestrn maintains pregnancy (ie keeps uterus in a nice stable state) but what is the other really important thing it does in terms of maintaining pregnancy?

A

Progesterone blocks the release of more hormones from the pituitary gland, so that further ovulation does not normally occur during pregnancy

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8
Q

m5, reprod, #2

what are 2 adv of sexual reprod?

A
  • genetic variation
  • methods can promote dispersal of offspring
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9
Q

m5, reprod, #2

what are 2 adv of intrnl fert?

A
  • higher chance of successful fert
  • protection, nutrients, etc.
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10
Q

m5, reprod, #2

how are internal and external fert similar?

A

Male + female gametes required

Sperm fertilise eggs when they unite/in close proximity to each other

Zygote requires a watery environment for development

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11
Q

m5, reprod, #2

How does fertilisation occur in plants?

A

via pollination

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12
Q

m5, reprod, #3

what is parthenogenesis?

A

a form of asexual reproduction by self-impregnation resulting in the production of a zygote from an unfertilised egg

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13
Q

m5, reprod, #2

what are BULBS?

A

Modified roots (underground storage organ) that consists of a short stem surrounded by fleshy leaves: new shoots develop

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14
Q

m5, reprod, #2

what are TUBERS?

A

Underground food stores. Groups of cells in the tuber use this food to produce the energy needed for cell division. These cells then grow and develop into new plants.

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15
Q

m5, reprod, #2

what is APOMIXIS?

A

Special generative tissues that do not require fertilisation (can also function sexually), eg dandelions

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16
Q

m5, reprod, #2

Diff between fungal and plant cells

A

Fungi have no chlorophyll and so cannot photosynthesise

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17
Q

m5, cell repl, #6

what happens during G2 phase in the cell cycle?

A

Enzymes check the duplicated chromosomes for errors/corrections and cytoplasmic materials accumulate to prepare for division

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18
Q

m5, cell repl, #6

what happens during the G0 phase? examples of cells that experience this?

A

Resting phase: not preparing to divide, eg not enough resources

Certain types of cells don’t undergo mitosis, eg neurons, skeletal muscle cells

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19
Q

m5, cell repl, #8

1) Nitrogenous bases purine and non-purine (pyrimidine)

2) What type of bonds exist between sugar and phosphate?

A

1) purine = A, G
pyrimidine = C,T

2) covalent bonds

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20
Q

m5, cell repl, #8

what does ligase do in the lagging strand?

A

Connects Okazaki fragments of lagging strand by forming phosphodiester bonds between them

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21
Q

m5, cell repl, #8

Why is it essential that DNA is able to be replicated exactly?

A
  • All structure in our body based on our DNA - no same DNA carried by 2 or more individuals
  • So all daughter cells are genetically the same - this is essential for the proper functioning of multicellular organisms, as it enables the development of specialized cell types and tissues
  • If not replicated 100% the same, it will result to some mutation resulting to some genetic anomaly or genetic disorders
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22
Q

m5, dna + polypep synth, #11

what is ribosomal RNA?

A
  • made in the nucleolus of the cell
  • forms a structural part of ribosomes (smaller subunit)
  • aids in protein synthesis
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23
Q

m5, dna + polypep synth, #11

In pre-mRNA processing (ie post-transcriptional modification), what happens + why?

A
  • 5’ end: (adds a ) 7-methylguanosine cap
  • 3’ end: (adds a) poly (A) tail
  • Splicing of introns by spliceosomes BEFORE mRNA is exported to the cytoplasm
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24
Q

m5, dna + polypep synth, #11

what does the 7-methylguanosine cap do? (2)

A

protects the mRNA from degradation and assists in ribosome binding during translation

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25
Q

m5, dna + polypep synth, #11

what does the poly-A tail do? (3)

A
  1. protects mRNA from degradation
  2. aids in export of mature mRNA to cytoplasm
  3. involved in binding proteins involved in initiating translation
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26
Q

m5, dna + polypep synth, #11

what is involved in post-translational modif?

A
  • These modifications regulate protein folding
  • Many polypeptides require these modifications -> creates mature proteins which have proper 3D shape and function
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27
Q

m5, gen var, #15

how to write ABO blood group?

A

IA, IB, i

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28
Q

m5, dna + polypep synth, #11

what is the role of ribosomes in polypep synth? (3)

A

translation

  1. bind to mRNA strand
  2. bring together tRNA molecules (which are carrying specific amino acids according to their anticodon) + mRNA codons
  3. ribosomes contain the enzymes necessary to form peptide bonds between the amino acids to make polypeptides
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29
Q

m5, dna + polypep synth, #11

where are ribosomes situated in eukaryotes?

A

ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM

30
Q

what is labelled A and B in these two images?

A

A: rough endoplasmic reticulum
B: ribosomes

31
Q

m5, dna + polypep synth, #11

how does the correct folding of the polypeptide chains that make up an enzyme contribute to enzyme function?

A

the polypep chains that make up an enzyme must be folded in the correct conformation to provide structure for the correct active site for the substrate to bind to it -> lock and key model

32
Q

m5, inh pattns in a pop, #18

what is the role of primers in PCR?

A
  • show starting points for polym to start adding nucleotides
  • 2 primers show the full length of the gene of interest to be copied - to be “built”
33
Q

m5, inh pattns in a pop, #18

how can the 📷 at the end of PCR identify the DNA bases?

A

in the ‘ingredients’ list of PCR, should have dye-labelled dideoxynucleotides

34
Q

m5, inh pattns in a pop, #18

heat is reduced to WHAT DEGREE from 96C to allow primers to bind + polym to start adding nucleotides?

why would it then be reheated to 96C?

A

50C

to allow the new strand to separate from the old strand

35
Q

m5, inh pattns in a pop, #18

what are STRs?

A
  • Regions of non-coding DNA that contain repeats of the same nucleotide sequence
  • Most common DNA profiling method
36
Q

m5, inh pattns in a pop, #18

What role can restriction enzymes play in the steps of gel electrophoresis?

A

restriction enzymes enable the precise preparation of DNA samples with defined sizes -> possible to separate and analyse DNA fragments based on their size and molecular weight

before DNA is loaded in wells, restriction enzymes do cutting - results in collection of DNA fragments of varying lengths which will be sep on the gel

37
Q

m5, inh pattns in a pop, #19

✍🏻 Explain how population genetics data is being used to help manage the conservation of 🐨s

A

:)

38
Q

m5, inh pattns in a pop, #19

Evaluate the effectiveness of the population genetics to assist in the conservation of 🐨s

A

Shows that there were no new haplotypes in modern samples

  • Can draw conclusions that low mtDNA diversity in modern populations may be due to fragmentation events which may reflect inbreeding or founder events
  • Can suggest suitable management strategies based on data + results rather than simply observation (therefore management is more effective)
39
Q

m5, inh pattns in a pop, #19

define pop genetics properly PLEASE

A

The study of genetic variation within a population over time, including allele/gene frequency

40
Q

m5, inh pattns in a pop, #19

define conservation genetics

A

Application of genetics to preserve species through maintaining variation within species so they are capable of coping with environmental change

41
Q

m5, inh pattns in a pop, #20

could you please talk about the HAPMAP project in terms of pop genetics for diseases?

A
42
Q

m5, inh pattns in a pop, #20

why HGP signif?

A

HGP sequenced first human genome (DNA obtained from many individuals) and published online for free redistribution + scientific use of data

43
Q

m5, inh pattns in a pop, #21

what is one method using pop genetics to determine human evolution?

A

DNA HYBRIDISATION

  • techn that sep the double stranded dna of 2 species into single strands
  • single strand from each species are mixed and allowed to bind
  • they are then reheated and temp of sep recorded
  • the more closely related the species = the higher the temp needed to sep
44
Q

m5, inh pattns in a pop, #21

could you draw the out of africa hypothesis?

could you then explain it?

A

Archaic Homo sapiens left Africa. A 2nd migration out of Africa occurred 100 000 y/a. Modern humans of African origin replaced/interbred/out-competed archaic groups

45
Q

m5, gen var, #17

where are most SNPs found?

A

In the introns (DNA between genes) and therefore have little effect on cellular function. Exon (gene) SNPs have a more significant impact, including development of diseases.

46
Q

m5, gen var, #17

this might seem pedantic but I really think you need to include this:

what is the def of SNPs?

A

a POINT MUTATION that occurs in >1% of the pop (diff in a single nucleotide)

47
Q

m5, gen var, #17

what are the differences between SNPs and ALLELES? (2)

A
  • AN ALLELE IS A VARIANT FOR A GENE (OCCURS IN CODING DNA) VS SNPs CAN BE IN CODING OR NON-CODING DNA
  • ALLELE MAY INVOLVE MULTIPLE DIFF IN BASE SEQUENCE VS SNPs ONLY 1 BASE SUBSTITUTION
48
Q

m5, gen var, #17

what are the differences between SNPs and MUTATIONS? (2)

A
  • SNPs can act as biological markers, helping scientists locate genes that are associated with disease VS mutations are changes in the structure of a gene (for eg can also involve chrom mutations)
  • SNPs in >1% of population, mutations typically in <1% of population
49
Q

m5, gen var, #17

what is the maximum # of variations for a SNP?

A

4

50
Q

what does the F1 gen represent?

A

the first generation of OFFSPRING not the starting parents

51
Q

what is the scientific name for more simple method of inheritance?

A

monohybrid crosses
Mendelian inheritance

52
Q

m5, types of inheritance, #15

how is x-linked recessive passed down?

A

all x-linked rec fully evident in males

no 👨🏻 to 👦🏻 transmission

there is 👨🏻 to 👧🏻 and 👩🏻 to 👦🏻👧🏻

53
Q

m5, types of inheritance, #15

how is x-linked dominant passed down?

A

no 👨🏻 to 👦🏻 transmission

but all affected 👨🏻s WILL PASS the condition to their 👧🏻s (affected)

54
Q

m5, types of inheritance, #15

how is y-linked passed down?

A

REMEMBER IT DOES OCCUR, but not often

only affects men

55
Q

m5, types of inheritance, #15

how it mtDNA-linked passed down?

A

occurs in all descendants of an affected female

affected males do not transmit the condition

56
Q

CELL REPLICATION MEANS

A

DNA replication, mitosis, meiosis

57
Q

m5, types of proteins, #13

when asked to compare two types of proteins…

A

FIBROUS and GLOBULAR

58
Q

m5, diff organisms reproduction, #3

A

every day i think you’re more and more of a dingbat!

it’s B!

NOT pollination
it’s still called fertilisation

59
Q

what is the relationship between proto-oncogenes and cancer?

A

a mutation in proto-oncogene can lead to excessive CDK and cyclin production

-> results in uncontrolled cell growth

60
Q

m5, cell replication, #10

how do errors during DNA replication affect continuity of a species?

A
  • DNA polym can make mistakes, if editing enzymes don’t correct these -> have potential to alter end product of protein synthesis
  • new proteins -> could be adv -> genetic variation -> cont of species
  • OR no protein, altered protein -> imp cell activity -> may disease or death
61
Q

m5, cell replication, #6

how do errors during mitosis affect cont of a species?

A
  • uncontrollable division of cells -> tumour growth -> cancer
  • may result in individuals not being able to reach reproductive age which would then affect the continuity of the species
62
Q

m5, cell replication, #7

how do errors during meiosis affect cont of a species?

A
  • can introduce genetic variation (beneficial traits) good for species cont in case of environ change/disease
  • but non-disjunction -> aneuploidy, errors in meiosis can also lead to polyploidy (offspring doesn’t survive very long)
63
Q

m5, genetic variation, #16

how do you label generations and individuals in pedigrees?

A
64
Q

m5, DNA and polypep syn

what is the structure of tertiary proteins?

A

3D folding pattern of a protein due to side chain interactions

65
Q

m5, reprod, #4/5

UPDATED: what is the parturition PFL?

draw

A
66
Q

m5, reprod, #4/5

what is the PFL that occurs during pregnancy?

A

Month 1 to 3: Corpus Luteum in ovary continues to grow + secrete hormones

Month 3 to 9: Corpus Luteum shrinks + degenerates slowly, placenta takes over producing hormones to maintain pregnancy

PFL HERE:
HcG = secreted by blastocysts/developing embryo → supports CL → secretes progesterone and oestrogen → supports embryo (PFL)

67
Q

m5, genetic variation, #16

what does this highlighted part of this pedigree represent?

A

TWINS

68
Q

m5, genetic variation, #16

if asked about the FEATURES of particular individuals on a pedigree, what should you include? (4)

A

sex
affected/unaffected
generation #
other important features you see

69
Q

m5, cell replication, #6

what are centrioles?

A
70
Q

m5, cell replication, #7

what does “continuity of species” mean?

A

ongoing survival of species because of characteristics passed from parents to their offspring in a continuous lineage

  • relies on consistently passing accurate genetic information
  • occasional introduction of genetic variation

Biology 🐄🍏🐛🤰🏻🧬 (6 decks)

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