LZ lecture 7

Question 1

Ecosystem level conservation

Answer 1

The conservation of habitats supporting healthy communities (in a pristine, if actually possible, or scarcely human-impacted state) is one of the best tools to protect biodiversity at all levels.

Protecting habitats allows us to protect single species, communities,
ecosystems, and their functions and services.

It’s a successful strategy, in the long-term, and with good benefit- cost ratios.

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are key to achieve such goal and support marine conservation, but their design needs to be scientifically sound.

MPA management/enforcement is also critically important

Question 2

Key notes of EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030: Bringing nature back into our lives

Answer 2

• Build a truly coherent Trans-European Nature Network.
• Enlarging protected areas is also an economic imperative. Studies on marine systems estimate that every euro invested in marine protected areas would generate a return of at least €3.
• Restored and properly protected marine ecosystems bring substantial health, social and economic benefits to coastal communities and the EU as a whole.
• Marine resources must be harvested sustainably and there must be zero-tolerance for illegal practices.
• fisheries-management measures must be established in all marine protected areas according to clearly defined conservation objectives and on the basis of the best available scientific advice.

Question 3

Nature protection; EU key commitments by 2030

Answer 3

Question 4

What is a marine protected area (MPA) according to IUCN?

Answer 4

“Any area of intertidal or subtidal terrain, together with its overlying water and associated flora, fauna, historical and cultural features, which has been reserved by law or other effective means to protect part or all of the enclosed environment”

(IUCN, 1988 / Kelleher and Kenchington, 1992¹).

Question 5

What is an MPA in the real world?

Answer 5

• Many areas, differing both ecologically and in management practices
• MPAs were often not established following an organized, well-thought planning (they were created in offshore platforms, submarine cables, in response to fishery collapse,in remote areas …) or clear socio-ecological understanding of their impacts
• ‘… most reserve locations and boundaries were chosen by a political process that focused on economics, logistics or public acceptance, while largely overlooking or ignoring how the complex ecology and biology of an area might be affected by reserve protection’ (Halpern and Warner 2003)
• This issue is now changing
• Role of science is crucial to increase MPA efficacy and efficiency
• Assessing MPA performance is key to gain stakeholder support (e.g. fishers), especially with reference to stakeholder needs
  (as always in conservation)

Question 6

What are the different purposes an MPA can serve to different stakeholders?

Answer 6

• Wildlife refugium (e.g. conservation NGOs, ecotourism and diving
  related stakeholders), for species or biodiversity
• Supporting ecosystem services, e.g. wave protection provided by salt marshes (coastal cities) or increased abundance of species targeted by fisheries outside MPA boundary (fishers)

Question 7

What and when was the first MPA?

Answer 7

Fort Jefferson National monument in Florida, 1935

Question 8

What is the Law of the Sea?

Answer 8

The Law of the Sea in 1958 primarily refers to the Geneva Convention on the High Seas, which was adopted on April 29, 1958, and entered into force on September 30, 1962. This convention aimed to codify customary international law regarding the high seas, which are areas of the ocean beyond the territorial jurisdiction of any single state.

Question 9

When was the first conference on MPA’s?

Answer 9

1975 in Tokyo

Question 10

What happened in 1982?

Answer 10

IUCN organized workshops to promote MPA creation and management

Question 11

How many MPA’s were there in 1970? And in 1994?

Answer 11

1970: 118 MPA’s in 27 countries

1994: 1306 MPA’s

Question 12

What happened between 2006 and 2016?

Answer 12

18 large MPA’s (areas greater than 100 000 km2) were established

Question 13

What is The World Database on Protected Areas (WDPA)?

Answer 13

The most comprehensive global database of marine and terrestrial protected areas.
Joint project between UN Environment Programme and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).

Question 14

How many areas are there currently protected?

Answer 14

• 8.16% Marine protected area coverage
• 18 427 Protected Areas
• The United Nations Convention on Biodiversity
  called for 10% ocean protection by 2020

Question 15

Different types of MPA’s

Answer 15

• Ia: Strict Nature Reserve
• Ib: Wilderness Area
• II: National Park
• III: Natural Monument or Feature
• IV: Habitat/Species Management Area
• V: Protected Landscape/ Seascape
• VI: Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources

Question 16

Strict nature reserve (type of MPA)

Answer 16

• Strictly protected areas set aside to protect biodiversity and also possibly geological geomorphical features
• Human visitation, use and impacts are strictly controlled and limited to ensure protection of the conservation values.

-Can serve for scientific research and monitoring

Question 17

Wilderness area (type of MPA)

Answer 17

• Usually large unmodified or slightly modified areas
• Rretaining their natural character and influence without permanent or significant human habitation

-Protected and managed so as to preserve their natural condition.

Question 18

National park (type of MPA)

Answer 18

• Large natural or near natural areas set aside to protect large-scale ecological processes, along with the complement of species and ecosystems characteristic of the area
• Also provide a foundation for environmentally and culturally compatible, spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational, and visitor opportunities.

Question 19

Natural monument or Feature (type of MPA)

Answer 19

• Set aside to protect a specific natural monument, which can be a landform, sea mount, submarine cavern, geological feature such as a cave or even a living feature such as an ancient grove.
• Generally quite small protected areas and often have high visitor value

Question 20

Habitat/Species Management Area (type of MPA)

Answer 20

• Aim to protect particular species or habitats and management reflects this priority.
• Many Category IV protected areas will need regular, active interventions to address the requirements of particular species or to maintain habitats, but this is not a requirement of the category.

Question 21

Protected landscape/ seascape (type of MPA)

Answer 21

• A protected area where the interaction of people and nature over time has produced an area of distinct character with significant, ecological, biological, cultural and scenic value
• Safeguarding the integrity of this interaction is vital to protecting and sustaining the area and its associated nature conservation and other values.

Question 22

Protected area with sustainable use of natural resources (type of MPA)

Answer 22

• To conserve ecosystems and habitats together with associated cultural values and traditional natural resource management systems.
• Generally large, with most of the area in a natural condition
• A proportion is under sustainable natural resource management
• Low level non-industrial use of natural resources compatible with nature conservation is seen as one of the main aims of the area.

Question 23

What are the effects of marine reserves according to Halpern (2003)?

Answer 23

• Halpern (2003) reviewed 112 independent empirical measurements of no-take reserves: average values of all biological indicators were strikingly higher inside marine reserves compared to reference sites (either the same site before the reserve was created or equivalent sites outside the reserve).
• Relative to reference sites: population densities were 91% higher, biomass was 192% higher, and average organism size and diversity were 20–30% higher in reserves.
• These values were independent of reserve size, indicating that even small reserves can produce high values.
• Such results show that marine reserves of all sizes can promote biological responses.

Question 24

how quickly do the impacts of marine reserves occur and how long do they persist?

Answer 24

They have rapid and long lasting conservation effects

Question 25

Effects of MPA (image)

Answer 25

Question 26

MPA size vs dispersion scale of the population(s) of interest

Answer 26

• if MPA is too small, all larvae are exported, and import takes place from unprotected areas;
• if MPA too big, no substantial spillover of individuals and egg export to surrounding unprotected areas
• tradeoffs (SLOSS debate), which are also influenced by the MPA goal
• MPAs at least twice the average dispersion distance
• Complexity: different species have different sedentarity (not moving), home ranges or larval dispersion, larval dispersion may change over years

Question 27

What is the SLOSS debate in conservation biology?

Answer 27

• The SLOSS debate revolves around whether it is better to have a Single Large or Several Small protected areas for conservation purposes.
• The answer depends on various factors such as conservation goals, species characteristics, and landscape context.

Question 28

Why is it important to consider species-specific characteristics when designing marine protected areas (MPAs)?

Answer 28

Species-specific characteristics, such as sedentarity, home range sizes, and larval dispersal patterns, influence the effectiveness of MPAs. Understanding these traits helps in determining the optimal size and design of MPAs to ensure effective protection and conservation of target species.

Question 29

What factors should be considered when determining the optimal size of a marine protected area (MPA)?

Answer 29

• The optimal size of an MPA depends on factors such as larval dispersal distances, connectivity with surrounding areas, conservation goals, species-specific characteristics, temporal dynamics, and ecological complexity.
• Balancing these factors is crucial to maximize the effectiveness of MPAs in conserving marine biodiversity.

Question 30

Why is connectivity between marine protected areas (MPAs) and surrounding areas important for conservation?

Answer 30

Connectivity facilitates larval dispersal, genetic exchange, and population spillover between MPAs and adjacent areas. Maintaining connectivity enhances the resilience of marine populations and supports the long-term success of conservation efforts.

Question 31

What is Ecologically-Important Sustaining Dispersal?

Answer 31

• Ensures gene flow, promotes demographic stability, and contributes to the persistence and resilience of populations within their habitats
• Examples: daily or seasonal movements of organisms for foraging, breeding, or avoiding predators, as well as regular dispersal events that prevent population isolation.

Question 32

What is Evolutionarily-Important Seeding Dispersal?

Answer 32

• Movement of individuals or propagules (e.g., seeds, spores, larvae) that contribute significantly to the colonization of new habitats or the establishment of new populations.
• Unlike sustaining dispersal, which primarily maintains existing populations, seeding dispersal plays a critical role in initiating new populations, expanding species’ ranges, and facilitating genetic diversification.
• This type of dispersal is essential for species’ long-term evolutionary success and adaptation to changing environmental conditions.
• Examples include: long-distance dispersal events that enable species to colonize distant islands, establish populations in newly available habitats, or respond to habitat fragmentation by establishing corridors for gene flow.

Question 33

“Ecologically-important sustaining dispersal” vs “evolutionarily-important seeding dispersal”

Answer 33

• refer to two different aspects of population dynamics and dispersal strategies in ecology
• ecologically-important sustaining dispersal focuses on maintaining existing populations and ecological processes
• evolutionarily-important seeding dispersal emphasizes the establishment of new populations and the promotion of evolutionary processes such as adaptation and speciation.
• Both types of dispersal are crucial for the persistence, resilience, and evolutionary success of species in diverse ecosystems

Question 34

Model presenting the effect of MPA size and spacing on connectivity in a MPA network

Answer 34

Question 35

What about highly mobile species and MPA’s?

Answer 35

• Fish capable of moving long distances are not expected to directly benefit from protection.
• However, tagging studies that reveal intra-species differences in movement behaviour force us to rethink our expectations of reserve performance. They help explain unexpected beneficiaries from reserves seen in field studies.
• In many fish species a proportion of the population might remain within a relatively small area, whilst others undertake significant movements.
• The resident population enables build-up of biomass and reproductive capacity within a reserve.
• The more mobile animals ensure that benefits are exported beyond the boundaries.
• For example, in commercially important South African shore fish, 67–93% of individuals were recaptured within 1 km of their original tagging site, whilst the rest moved greater distances of tens or even hundreds of kilometres (see Gell and Roberts 2003).

Question 36

What is meant by the term “bipartite life histories” in marine organisms?

Answer 36

Bipartite life histories in marine organisms consist of distinct stages:
- adults that occupy specific habitats throughout their lives
- early life history stages (e.g., eggs and larvae) that are capable of dispersing over wide distances.

Question 37

What characterizes the dispersal of larvae in marine environments?

Answer 37

• Larvae of marine organisms are essentially planktonic, drifting with ocean currents.
• They lack the ability to overcome advective transport, relying on passive dispersal mechanisms for movement across vast distances in the ocean.

Question 38

What role do larval stages play in the population dynamics of marine organisms?

Answer 38

• Larval stages contribute to both high migration potential and population size fluctuations in marine organisms.
• They facilitate extensive migration, gene flow between populations, and colonization of new habitats, while also experiencing high fecundity (eggs produced in high numbers) and mortality rates, leading to population size fluctuations.

Question 39

How do larval stages contribute to population size fluctuations in marine organisms?

Answer 39

• Larval stages contribute to population size fluctuations through high fecundity and larval mortality.
• Despite high egg production, larval mortality rates are typically very high due to factors such as predation, competition, and environmental conditions, leading to stochastic (random probability distribution) changes in survival and local recruitment.
• These fluctuations influence population dynamics and community structure in marine ecosystems.

Question 40

What are some factors contributing to the high mortality of larvae in marine organisms?

Answer 40

• predation
• competition for resources
• unfavorable environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, salinity, oxygen levels)
• exposure to pollutants or pathogens

These factors result in a high level of stochasticity in larval survival and local recruitment.

Question 41

Estimating dispersal distances of marine propagules (3 steps)

Answer 41

1. Observations in the field
2. Modelling
3. Genetics

Question 42

What is an advection field?

Answer 42

• Refers to the movement and distribution of water, along with any dissolved substances or organisms within and around the MPA
• Advection fields are influenced by ocean currents, tidal currents, and other physical processes that transport water and its associated properties, such as temperature, salinity, and nutrient concentrations.

Question 43

What are the advantages of networks of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) over isolated MPAs?

Answer 43

• Networks of MPAs provide greater ecological benefits than isolated MPAs by allowing for the movement of individuals between protected areas.
• They enhance population sustainability, increase resilience to local disturbances, and maximize positive effects like spillover and larval dispersal.

Question 44

Why is it important for individual MPAs to be large in size?

Answer 44

• Individual MPAs need to be large enough to sustain populations effectively.
• Larger MPAs can support viable populations of target species, promote genetic diversity, and provide sufficient habitat for critical life stages such as reproduction and foraging.

Question 45

What factors should be considered when designing networks of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)?

Answer 45

• When designing MPA networks, it is essential to consider the cooperative scale at which MPAs interact, taking into account biological differences among species.
• Additionally, factors such as MPA size, spacing, connectivity, and management strategies should be tailored to maximize ecological benefits and conservation outcomes.

Question 46

What is connectivity?

Answer 46

Connectivity is defined as the exchange of individuals between populations (Palumbi 2003)

Question 47

How is connectivity determined for marine organisms?

Answer 47

• By dispersal at the level of propagules (Ward et al. 1994).
• Propagules, however, are difficult to follow directly due to their rapid reduction in space and time compared to the natal origin and, in the case of larvae, their small size (Cowen & Sponaugle 2009).

Question 48

What can provide information on connectivity?

Answer 48

Genetic data (direct and indirect)

Question 49

Indirect genetic data information on connectvity

Answer 49

• genetic markers allow the identification of genetically differentiated populations, which are not connected by exchange of individuals (gene flow).
• Through the use of theoretical models it is possible to relate genetic differentiation to the average distance of larval dispersal
• for example by studying the increase in differentiation with geographical distance (Palumbi 2003, Kinlan and Gaines 2003).

Question 50

Direct genetic data information on connectivity

Answer 50

• Genetic markers allow assignment, paternity and kinship tests to be carried out. (kinship tests = genetic tests used to determine the degree of biological relatedness between individuals)
• These approaches potentially allow detecting the movement of individuals and their children between different populations (e.g. Planes et al. 2009; Schunter et al. 2014)

Question 51

Genetic work in Coconet (comparing Adriatic sea and Black sea)

Answer 51

Areas of Adriatic

Question 52

Genetic work in Coconet (comparing Adriatic sea and Black sea)

Answer 52

Areas of Black Sea

Question 53

Studying the connection of all marine populations among MPAs and surrounding areas, which are part of the network, is still too expensive. What is needed now?

Answer 53

Species selection

Question 54

What does this data of 8 microsatellites of Zostera noltei show?

Answer 54

Very strong differences both within Adriatic and Black Sea. Some populations are similar, which indicate connectivity and allow to trace gene flow.

Question 55

What does this genetic structure show?

Answer 55

Very strong differences both within Adriatic and Black Sea. In Adriatic there is a quite clear latitudinal pattern, in BS almost all is different.

Question 56

What does this data of 14 microsatellites of Posidonia show?

Answer 56

Significant and strong differences within Adriatic. In Adriatic there is not a clear pattern, with OTR, different, encompassed by TOG and POC

Question 57

What does this data of 4002 SNPs of Symphodus show?

Answer 57

Significant differences in Adriatic
Possibly 3 groups, no differences TOG, POC, OTR
Fst Adr 0.00513 highly significant

Question 58

What is Fst in genetics?

Answer 58

• Refers to the fixation index, which is a measure of population genetic differentiation.

​- Fst quantifies the degree of genetic variation within populations relative to the total genetic variation across multiple populations.

Question 59

How do you calculate Fst?

Answer 59

Question 60

Summary of Coconet results

Answer 60

• Most of the species analyzed in the Adriatic pilot site are not genetically homogenous (11/12). This indicates isolation among at least some sites.
• The majority of the species analysed in the Black Sea are not genetically homogenous (5/9). The level of differentiation could be smaller in BS (P. marmoratus and S. porcus).
• The level and pattern of differentiation varies among species and area. It is not possible to identify sites differentiated/isolated for all the species and there is not a simple relation between isolation and geographic distance.
• The genetic results clearly show that sites in the pilot area are not fully connected.
• Possibility of sharp breaks in genetic connectivity at the sampling scale.
• Possibility of connectivity between sites (TRE, TOG, OTR) and basins (POC).
• Many populations at the sampling sites can be self-recruiting or receiving recruits from a scale smaller than the sampling scale.

Question 61

Where are many MPA’s located?

Answer 61

In remote areas

Question 62

MPA’s in the mediterranean

Answer 62

• Not enough MPA’s
• Not distributed homogeneously
• Many ‘paper reserves’ –> lack of enforcement, illegal fishing

Question 63

How many MPA’s in Mediterranean?

Answer 63

Question 64

Which zones can be distinguished in MPA’s?

Answer 64

Question 65

What are focal species?

Answer 65

• Species which are indicator of specific biocenosis at risk or unique ecosystem processes (biocenosis = a community of biologically integrated and interdependent plants and animals)
• Flagship charismatic species whose symbolic (and ecotouristic) value is high
• Umbrella species whose protection in turn leads to protecting other species and processes (e.g. by protecting ecosystem engineers you protect their role too)

Question 66

Biodiversity Hotspot concept (Myers 1988)

Answer 66

• Conserve areas with many species first
• Focus on areas with many
  endemic species (found nowhere else)
• Focus on those that are most threatened by development
• Focus on hotspots of speciation (formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution.)

Question 67

SLOSS: single large or several small

Answer 67

• The relation between the number of species and the size of the area hosting them was a highly debated topic in ecology
• A single large reserve will contain more
  species than a single small one…
• But will a single large reserve contain more species than several small taken together?
• What are the pro’s and con’s?

Question 68

Issues of small vs large

Answer 68

• economical: big areas cost a lot
• political: big areas are “difficult”
• social: big areas can impact (traditional) jobs
• scientific: big areas may not be necessary to protect some species

Question 69

What is Ecological spatial connectivity?

Answer 69

Refers to processes (biological and/or physical) by which genes, organisms, populations, species, nutrients, and/or energy move among spatially distinct habitats, populations, communities, or ecosystems.

• Population connectivity (demograhic)
• Genetic connectivity (gene flow)
• Community connectivity
• Ecosystem connectivity

Question 70

How big should a marine reserve be to benefit fisheries?

Answer 70

• For sedentary animals living on coral reefs, reserves of <1km across have increased local fisheries, especially where established in networks
• For more mobile estuarine fish, reserves in Florida (16 and 24 km2) have sustained spillover to local recreational fisheries for decades.

Question 71

When do fisheries benefit from protected areas?

Answer 71

• Depending on the fishery and conditions being considered
• More than 40 studies conclude that fisheries benefits, require portected areas of between 10% and 80% of fishing grounds.
• Most predict maximum benefits with areas of 20– 40%.of fishing grounds

Question 72

What is the 30x30 target?

(Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, December 2022, Montreal, Canada)

Answer 72

• Ensure that by 2030, at least 30% of terrestrial, inland water, marine, and coastal areas, especially those vital for biodiversity, are effectively conserved and managed.
• This includes well-connected protected areas and other conservation measures integrated into wider landscapes and seascapes, respecting indigenous and local community rights

Question 73

What are factors contributing to MPA success?

Answer 73

6 key themes:

• Community engagement
• Socio-economic characteristics (e.g. greater resource dependence for subsistence and livelihood leading to increased likelihood that local people would not comply)
• Ecological factors (e.g. prior ecological knowledge, solid science foundation)
• MPA design (e.g. long-term monitoring, sustainable funding, LEK incorporation, adaptive management)
• Governance (e.g. having a political environment that facilitates MPA establishment at multiple scales, with supportive management institutions responsible for the MPA establishment, perpetuation, monitoring, and enforcement)
• Enforcement

Question 74

What are Ramsar sites (Ramsar convention)?

Answer 74

• The Ramsar convention (Iran, 1971) protects wetlands of international importance, especially as habitat for aquatic birds. It is the first interngovernmental treaty with global scope aiming for the conservation and ‘wise use’ of natural ecosystems
• About 90% of UN members are contracting parties

Question 75

Ramsar sites in Veneto

Answer 75

• Laguna di Venezia: valle Averto
• Vincheto di Cellarda
• Busatello marsh
• Palude del Brusà - Le Vallette

In Italy: 57 Ramsar sites (73 982 hectares)

Question 76

What are the goals of Habitat Directive - 92/43/CEE (On the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora)?

Answer 76

• promote mantainance of biodiversity through conservation of natural and seminatural habitats, even aquatic, and of wild fauna and flora
• ensure restoration or maintenance of natural habitats and species of community interest at a favourable conservation status
• promote biodiversity, taking economic, social, cultural and regional requirements into account
• the maintenance of biodiversity may in certain cases require the maintenance, or indeed the encouragement, of human activities (e.g. cattle and grazing)

Question 77

What is the Natura 2000 network?

Answer 77

A coherent European ecological network of special areas of conservation

19% of the landscape and 13% of the seascape in Italy belong to the Natura 2000 network

Question 78

Natura 2000 network has 2 types of protected areas..

Answer 78

• Special Protection Areas (SPA), Directive “Birds”, 79/409/CEE
• Sites of Community Importance (SCI) or proposed SCI (by Member States) (pSCI): sites going to be designated as a SAC (special area of conservation)