Lsat: Logical Reasoning

Question 1

Premise Indicator Words

Answer 1

Because, since, for, for example, for the reason that, in that, given that, as indicated by, due to, owing to, this can be seen from, we know this by.

Question 2

Conclusion Indicator Words

Answer 2

Thus, therefore, hence, consequently, as a result, so, accordingly, clearly, must be that, shows that, conclude that, follows that, for this reason.

Question 3

One of their favorite forms places a conclusion indicator and premise indicator back to back such as

Answer 3

Therefore, since
Thus, because
Hence, due to

Question 4

Additional Premise Indicator

Answer 4

Furthermore, moreover, besides, in addition, what’s more.

Question 5

Counter Premise Indicators

Answer 5

But, yet, however, on the other hand, admittedly, in contrast, although, even though, still, whereas, in spite of, despite, after all.

Question 6

Simple arguments include

Answer 6

Premise and Conclusion

Question 7

Complex arguments include

Answer 7

Premise and conclusion/premise and conclusion.

Question 8

Single speaker stimulus words to introduce alternate point of view.

Answer 8

Some people propose, many people believe, some argue that, some people argue that, some critics claim, some critics maintain, some scientists believe.

Question 9

Quantity Indicator Words

Answer 9

All, every, most, some, several, few, sole, only, none, not all.

Question 10

Probability Indicator words

Answer 10

Must, will, always, not always, probably, likely, should, would, not necessarily, could, rarely, never.

Question 11

Must be true/Most supported definition

Answer 11

Must be true questions ask you to identify the answer choice that is best proven by the information in the stimulus.

Question 12

“If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?”

Answer 12

Must be true

Question 13

“Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?”

Answer 13

Must be true

Question 14

Main point Definition

Answer 14

Main point questions ask you to find the primary conclusion made by the author.

Question 15

“The main point of the argument is that”

Answer 15

Main point.

Question 16

Point at issue

Answer 16

Point at issue questions require you to identify a point of contention between two speakers and thus these questions appear most exclusively with two speakers.

Question 17

“Larew and Mendota disagree about whether.”

Answer 17

Point at issue.

Question 18

Assumption question definition

Answer 18

Ask you to identify an assumption of the author’s argument.

Question 19

“Which of the following is an assumption required by the argument above?”

Answer 19

Necessary Assumption

Question 20

Justify the conclusion definition

Answer 20

Ask you to supply a piece of information that, when added to the premises, proves the conclusion.

Question 21

Which one of the following, if assumed, allows the conclusion above to be properly be drawn?”

Answer 21

Justify the conclusion.

Question 22

Strengthen/Support Definition

Answer 22

Ask you to select the answer choice that provides support for the author’s argument or strengthens it some way.

Question 23

“Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?”

Answer 23

Strengthen/Support

Question 24

“Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the statements above?”

Answer 24

Strengthen/support

Question 25

Resolve the paradox definition

Answer 25

You must find the answer choice that best resolves the contradiction or discrepancy.

Question 26

Weaken Definition

Answer 26

Weaken questions ask you to attack or undermine the author’s argument.

Question 27

Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?

Answer 27

Weaken

Question 28

Method of reasoning definition

Answer 28

Ask you to describe, in abstract terms, the way in which the author made his or her argument.

Question 29

“Which one of the following describes the technique of reasoning used above?”

Answer 29

Method of reasoning.

Question 30

Flaw in the Reasoning

Answer 30

Ask you to describe, in abstract terms, the error of reasoning committed by authors.

Question 31

“The reasoning in the astronomer’s argument is flawed because this argument.”

Answer 31

Flaw in the Reasoning

Question 32

Parallel Reasoning

Answer 32

Ask you to identify the answer choice that contains reasoning that is most similar in structure to the reasoning presented in the stimulus.

Question 33

“Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of reasoning to the argument above?”

Answer 33

Parallel Reasoning

Question 34

Evaluate the Argument Definition

Answer 34

You must decide which answer choice will allow you to determine the logical validity of the argument.

Question 35

“The answer to which one of the following questions would contribute most to an evaluation of the argument?”

Answer 35

Evaluate the argument

Question 36

Cannot be true definition

Answer 36

Ask you to identify the answer choice that cannot be true or is most weakened based on the information in the stimulus.

Question 37

“If the statements above are true, which one of the following cannot be true?”

Answer 37

Cannot be true.

Question 38

Family #1

Answer 38

Must be true, main point, point at issue, method of reasoning, flaw in the reasoning, parallel reasoning.

Question 39

Family #2

Answer 39

Assumption, justify the conclusion, strengthen/support, resolve the paradox.

Question 40

Family #3

Answer 40

Weaken

Question 41

Family #4

Answer 41

Cannot be true.

Question 42

One of the signature features of the four question families is

Answer 42

That they define the parameters of what you can do with the information in each question.

Question 43

First Family rule #1

Answer 43

1. You must accept the stimulus information - even if it contains an error of reasoning-and use it to prove that one of the answer choices must be true.

Question 44

First Family Rule #2

Answer 44

2. Any information in answer choice that does not appear either directly in the stimulus or as combination of items in the stimulus will be incorrect.

Question 45

Second Family Rule #1

Answer 45

The information in the stimulus is suspect. There are often reasoning errors present, and depending on the question you will help shore up the argument in some way.

Question 46

Second Family #2

Answer 46

The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they influence “new” information. Your task is to determine which answer choice best meets the question posed in the stem.

Question 47

Third Question Family rule #1

Answer 47

1. The information in the stimulus is suspect. There are often reasoning errors present, and you will further weaken the argument in some way.

Question 48

Third Question Family #2

Answer 48

2. The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include “new” information. Your task is to determine which answer choice best attacks the argument in the stimulus.

Question 49

Fourth Family Rule. #1

Answer 49

You must accept the stimulus information- even if it contains an error of reasoning - and use it to prove that one of the answer choices cannot occur.

Question 50

Fourth Family rule #2

Answer 50

Any information in answer choice that does not appear either directly in the stimulus or as a combination of items in the stimulus will be incorrect. The correct answer choice will directly disagree with the stimulus or a consequence of the stimulus.

Question 51

The true effect of “except” is to

Answer 51

Logically negate the question stem.

Question 52

Least has a similar effect to

Answer 52

Except when it appears in a question stem. Logically negates the question stem.

Question 53

In must be true the correct answer can be proven by

Answer 53

Referring to the facts stated in the stimulus.

Question 54

“If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?”

Answer 54

Must be true

Question 55

“If the information above is correct, which one of the following conclusions can be drawn properly drawn on the basis of it?”

Answer 55

Must be true

Question 56

“The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following?”

Answer 56

Must be true

Question 57

“Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the passage?”

Answer 57

Must be true

Question 58

“Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?”

Answer 58

Must be true

Question 59

You can often predict the occurrence of must be true questions because

Answer 59

The stimulus does not contain a conclusion.

Question 60

“Many” can include

Answer 60

All

Question 61

Most is not the same as

Answer 61

Many

Question 62

Two answers that will always be correct in must be true questions.

Answer 62

1. Paraphrased answers.
2. Answers that are the sum of two or more stimulus statements. (Combination answers)

Question 63

Must be True
Paraphrased answer choices.

Answer 63

Paraphrased answers are answers that rewrite a portion of the stimulus in different terms. When the answers mirror the stimulus, they are correct.

Question 64

Most students have an unstated expectation of the conclusion appearing in the last sentence, and the test makers are able to prey upon this expectation by
(Main point questions)

Answer 64

Creating wrong answers that paraphrase the last sentence of the stimulus. To avoid this trap, simply avoid assuming the last sentence is the conclusion.

Question 65

“Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the argument?”

Answer 65

Main point

Question 66

“Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion of the journalist’s argument?

Answer 66

Main point

Question 67

“Which one of the following most accurately restates the main point of the passage?”

Answer 67

Main point

Question 68

“The main point of the argument is that”

Answer 68

Main point

Question 69

Main point
Correct answer choice

Answer 69

Answers that paraphrase the conclusion are correct in main point questions.

Question 70

If an argument contains two conclusions you will be forced into identify,

Main point.

Answer 70

which one is the main conclusion and which one is the subsidiary conclusion.

Question 71

In every case you should fill in the blank with the
(Fill in the blank)

Answer 71

Main point of the argument. In order to achieve this goal, you must read the stimulus for clues revealing the direction of the argument and the author’s intent.

Question 72

Conditional reasoning

Answer 72

Is the broad name given to logical relationships composed of sufficient and necessary conditions. Any conditional statement consists of at least one sufficient condition and one necessary condition.

Question 73

Sufficient Condition

Answer 73

Can be defined as an event or circumstance whose occurrence indicates that a necessary condition must also occur.

Question 74

Necessary condition

Answer 74

Can be defined as an event or circumstance whose occurrence is required in order for a sufficient condition to occur.

Question 75

If a sufficient condition occurs, you automatically know that

Answer 75

The necessary condition also occurs. If a necessary condition occurs, then it is possible but not certain that the sufficient condition will occur.

Question 76

Three logical features of conditional reasoning

Answer 76

1. The sufficient condition does not make the necessary condition occur.
2. Temporally speaking, either condition can occur first, or two can occur at the same time.
3. The conditional relationship stated does not have to reflect reality.

Question 77

The sufficient condition does not make the the necessary condition occur. The sufficient condition does not

Answer 77

Actively cause the necessary condition to happen. In a conditional statement the occurrence of the sufficient condition is a sign or indicator that the necessary condition will occur, is occurring, or has already occurred.

Question 78

Conditional reasoning occurs when a statement containing

Answer 78

Sufficient and necessary conditions is used to draw a conclusion based on the statement.

Question 79

A+ ———> study
—————————————————
John received an A+ on the test, so he must have studied.

Answer 79

A+ ——-> study

(Repeat form)

Question 80

A+ ————> study
—————————————————
John studied for the test, so he must have received an A+ on the test.

Answer 80

Study —————-> A + (invalid)
MISTAKEN REVERSAL

Question 81

A+ ————-> study
—————————————————
John did not receive an A+ on the test, so he must not have studied.

Answer 81

~A+ ———> ~study (invalid)
MISTAKEN NEGATION

Question 82

A+ ————-> study
—————————————————
John did not study for the test, so he must not have received an A+.

Answer 82

~study —————> ~A+

Question 83

The repeat form simply

Answer 83

Restates the elements in the original order they appeared. This creates a valid inference.

Question 84

A mistaken reversal switches the elements in the

Answer 84

Sufficient and necessary conditions, creating a statement that does not have to be true.

Question 85

A mistaken negation negates both conditions, therefore creating a

Answer 85

Statement that does not have to be true.

Question 86

A contrapositive denied the necessary condition, thereby making it

Answer 86

Impossible for the sufficient condition to occur.

Question 87

Sufficient Condition Indicator

Answer 87

If, when, whenever, every, all, any, people who, in order to.

Question 88

Necessary Condition Indicator

Answer 88

Then, only, only if, must, required, unless, except, until, without.

Question 89

In the case of unless, except, until, and without, a special two step process called the unless equation is applied to the diagram.

Answer 89

1. Whatever terms is modified by “unless”, “except”, “until”, or “without” becomes the necessary condition.
2. The remaining term is negated and becomes the sufficient condition.

Question 90

To diagram a statement that contains “unless”,

Answer 90

Convert the variable modified by “unless” into the necessary condition. Take the remainder, negate it, and convert it to the sufficient condition. The same technique applies to statements that contain “until”, “except”, and “without.”

Question 91

“No” and “None” at the beginning modifies the

Answer 91

Necessary condition.

Question 92

“When” introduces the

Answer 92

Sufficient condition.

Question 93

When a stimulus contains conditional reasoning is combined with a must be true question stem

Answer 93

Immediately look for the repeat or contrapositive in the answer choices.

Question 94

Statement 1: A —-> B
Statement 2: B —-> C

Chain: ?
Inference: ?

Answer 94

Chain: A ——> B ——>C
Inference: A ——> C

Question 95

“Only” indicates a necessary condition when it is

Answer 95

Before a noun or phrase that must be true for another condition to hold.

Question 96

As a modifier (not logical): “only” acts a modifier or adjective when it

Answer 96

Emphasizes or limits a noun without establishing a conditional relationship.
Ex: Mars has only small moons.”

Question 97

When “only” modifies a noun without setting up a logical condition,

Answer 97

It is not functioning as necessary condition indicator.

Question 98

F some A —-> LH <——-|—-> H
Every author works long hours, and if you work long hours you are never happy. Some authors are female.
Inferences: ?

Answer 98

Inferences: F some LH
F some ~H
A <———|——> H

Question 99

The single arrow ——>
Introduced by sufficient and necessary words such as:

Answer 99

If, then, when, all, every, and only.

All X’s are Y’s
X ——> Y
~Y ——> ~X

Question 100

The double arrow <———->
Introduced by

Answer 100

“If and only if” or by situations where the author implies that the arrow goes “both way”, such as by adding vice versa. After a conditional statement.

Question 101

X if and only if Y

Answer 101

X <———-> Y

Question 102

All W’s are Z’s, and all Z’s are W’s

Answer 102

W <—————> Z

Question 103

Double arrow statements allow for only two possible outcomes:

Answer 103

The two variables occur together, or neither of the two variables occur.

Question 104

The double- Not arrow <——|——>
Introduced by conditional statements where one of the terms is

Answer 104

Negative or by statements using words such as “no” and “none” that imply the two variables cannot “go together.”

Question 105

No X’s are Y’s

Answer 105

X <————|——-—-> Y

Question 106

If you are a T, then you are not a V,

Answer 106

T <———|———> V
T———> ~V

Question 107

The word some can be defined as

Answer 107

At least one, possibly all.

Question 108

Some are Not can be defined as

Answer 108

At least one is not, possibly all are not.

Question 109

Some are not =

Answer 109

Not all

Question 110

Some Indicators

Answer 110

Some, at least some, a few, a number, several, part of, a portion.

Question 111

The word most can be defined as

Answer 111

Majority, possibly all. Most includes the possibility of all.

Question 112

Most are not can be defined as

Answer 112

Majority are not, possibly all are not,

Question 113

Most indicators

Answer 113

Most, majority, more than half, almost all, usually, typically.

Question 114

All =
Most =
Some are not =
Most are not =
Some =
None =
Numerically

Answer 114

All = 100
Most = 51 to 100 (a majority)
Some are not = 0 to 99 (not all)
Most are not = 0 to 49
Some = 1 to 100 (“at least one”)
None = 0

Question 115

Reversible statement are easily identifiable because

Answer 115

The relationship symbol is symmetrical and does not include an arrow pointing in one direction.

Question 116

Non reversible terms have an arrow pointing

Answer 116

In just one direction.

Question 117

Reversible relationships include

Answer 117

None <———-|———->
Some
Double arrow <———->

Question 118

Non-reversible Relationship

Answer 118

All (——>)
Most |most. |
| ——->|

Question 119

Additive inferences result from

Answer 119

Combining multiple statements through a common term and then deducing a relationship that does not include the common term.

Question 120

Inherent inferences follow from

Answer 120

A single statement such as A——>B, and they are inferences that are known to be true simply from the relationship between the two variables.

Question 121

When the arrow goes both ways,

Answer 121

You can infer most and some are inherent.

Question 122

The negative logic ladder

Answer 122

None
|
V
Most are Not
|
V
Some are Not

Question 123

The negative logic ladder

Answer 123

None
|
V
Most are Not
|
V
Some are Not

Question 124

Variables that are linked in only one relationship are

Answer 124

Open

Question 125

Variables that are linked in two or more relationships are

Answer 125

Closed.

Question 126

Combine these terms
A some B
B——-> C

Answer 126

A some B ——> C

Question 127

The vast majority of additive inferences require either

Answer 127

All or none statements in the chain.

Question 128

Because all or none statements affect the entire group under discussion,

Answer 128

They are very restrictive and thus when other variables are joined to these relationships then inferences often result.

Question 129

When looking to make inferences, do not start with

Answer 129

A variable involved in a double not arrow relationship and then try to go across the double not arrow.

Question 130

The some train
To make an inference with a variable involved in a some relationship, an arrow

Answer 130

Leading away from the some relationship is required.

Question 131

A some B —-> C
Inference:?

Answer 131

A some C

Question 132

In the some train each variable is

Answer 132

Considered a station, and the relationships between each variable is a track.

Question 133

A successful journey on the some train consists of at least

Answer 133

Two stops, and yields an inference. An unsuccessful journey means no inference is present.

Question 134

The most train is similar to the some train, but because most is one step higher on the logic ladder,

Answer 134

The most train produces stronger inferences.

Question 135

The critical difference between the some train and most train is that because most has direction

Answer 135

You can only follow the most arrow to make a most inference.

Question 136

If you go backwards against the most arrow

Answer 136

It devolved the relationship to some, which is the inherent inference.

Question 137

In general, two consecutive some’s, two consecutive most’s, or a some and most in succession will

Answer 137

Not yield any inferences.

Question 138

For each argument, identify the conclusion and the premise(s). “Given that the price of steel is rising, we will no longer be able to offer discounts on our car parts.”

Answer 138

Features the premise indicator “given that.”
Premise: “Given that the price of steel is rising,”
Conclusion: “we will no longer be able to offer discounts on our car
parts.”

Question 139

For each argument, identify the conclusion and the premise(s). “The political situation in Somalia is unstable owing to the ability of individual warlords to maintain powerful armed forces.”

Answer 139

Features the premise indicator “owing to.”
Premise: “owing to the ability of individual warlords to maintain
powerful armed forces.”
Conclusion: “The political situation in Somalia is unstable”

Question 140

For each argument, identify the conclusion and the premise(s). “Since we need to have many different interests to sustain us, the scientists’ belief must be incorrect.”

Answer 140

Features the premise indicator “since.”
Premise: “Since we need to have many different interests to sustain
us,”
Conclusion: “the scientists’ belief must be incorrect.”

Question 141

For each argument, identify the conclusion and the premise(s). “So, as indicated by the newly released data, we should push forward with our efforts to recolonize the forest with snowy tree crickets.”

Answer 141

Features the conclusion/premise form indicator “So, as indicated by.” Premise: “as indicated by the newly released data”
Conclusion: “we should push forward with our efforts to recolonize the
forest with snowy tree crickets.”

Question 142

Either/Or definition

Answer 142

At least one of the two. Possibly both.

Question 143

The way test makers indicate that the items in two conditions cannot both occur.
(Either/Or)

Answer 143

“But not both”

Question 144

Either/Or are diagrammed by

Answer 144

Negate the sufficient condition.

Question 145

Whenever you take the contrapositive of a statement with multiple terms in the sufficient or necessary condition,

Answer 145

“And”, turns into “or”, and “or” turns into “and”

Question 146

“Or” contrapositive is

Answer 146

“And”

Question 147

“And” contrapositive is

Answer 147

“Or”

Question 148

The double arrow indicates that

Answer 148

Two terms must always occur together.

Question 149

Biconditionals indicate each term is

Answer 149

Both sufficient and necessary for the other.

Question 150

Terms in double arrow relationships either occur

Answer 150

Together or both do not occur.

Question 151

The double arrow is typically introduced in any of the following three ways:

Answer 151

1. Use of phrase “If and only if”
2. Use of the phrase “Vice Versa”
3. By repeating and reversing the terms.

Question 152

The double not arrow is similar to the

Answer 152

“Not equal” sign of logic, the two terms at the end of the sign cannot be selected at the same time.

Question 153

Weaken questions require

Answer 153

you to select the answer choice that undermines the author’s argument as decisively as possible.

Question 154

The stimulus will contain an argument. Because you are asked to weaken the author’s reasoning, and reasoning requires a conclusion, an argument will always be present. In order to maximize your chances of success you must

Answer 154

identify, isolate, and assess the premises and the conclusion of the argument. Only by understanding the structure of the argument can you gain the perspective necessary to attack the author’s position.

Question 155

Almost all correct Weaken answer choices impact the

Answer 155

conclusion. The more you know about the specifics of the conclusion, the better armed you will be to differentiate between correct and incorrect answers.

Question 156

Weaken questions often yield strong

Answer 156

prephrases. Be sure to actively consider the range of possible answers before proceeding to the answer choices.

Question 157

The stem uses the word “weaken” or a synonym. Following are some examples of words or phrases used to indicate that your task is to weaken the argument:

Answer 157

weaken, attack, refute, undermine, argue against, call into question, cast doubt, challenge, damage, counter.

Question 158

“Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?”

Answer 158

Weaken

Question 159

“Which one of the following, if shown to be a realistic possibility, would undermine the argument?”

Answer 159

Weaken

Question 160

“Which one of the following, if true, most undermines the researcher’s argument?”

Answer 160

Weaken

Question 161

“Which one of the following, if true, would most call into question the analysts’ explanation of the price increase?”

Answer 161

Weaken

Question 162

“Which one of the following, if true, could be used by Cora to counter Bernard’s rejection of her explanation?”

Answer 162

Weaken

Question 163

“Which one of the following, if true, is the strongest logical counter parent P can make to parent Q’s objection?”

Answer 163

Weaken

Question 164

“Which one of the following, if true, most calls into question the claim above?”

Answer 164

Weaken

Question 165

In practice, almost all correct LSAT Weaken question answers leave the

Answer 165

premises untouched.

Question 166

The key to weakening an LSAT argument is to

Answer 166

attack the conclusion.

Question 167

In weaken questions the conclusion is the part of the argument that is most likely to be attacked, but the correct answer choice will not simply contradict the conclusion. Instead, the correct answer will

Answer 167

undermine the conclusion by showing that the conclusion fails to account for some element or possibility. In this sense, the correct answer often shows that the conclusion does not necessarily follow from the premises even if the premises are true.

Question 168

Answers that weaken the argument’s conclusion will attack

Answer 168

assumptions made by the author.

Question 169

Common Weakening Scenarios

Answer 169

1. Incomplete Information. The author fails to consider all of the possibilities, or relies upon evidence that is incomplete. This flaw can be attacked by bringing up new possibilities or information.
2. Improper Comparison. The author attempts to compare two or more items that are essentially different.
3. Qualified Conclusion. The author qualifies or limits the conclusion in such a way as to leave the argument open to attack.

Question 169

The stimuli for weaken questions contain errors of

Answer 169

assumption.

Question 170

To weaken a conditional conclusion, attack the

Answer 170

necessary condition by showing that the necessary condition does not need to occur in order for the sufficient condition to occur.

Question 171

To weaken a conditional conclusion, attack the necessary condition by showing that the necessary condition does not need to occur in order for the sufficient condition to occur.

Answer 171

This can be achieved by presenting a counterexample or by presenting information that shows that the sufficient condition can occur without the necessary condition.

Question 172

When you have conditional reasoning in the stimulus and a Weaken question, immediately look for

Answer 172

an answer that attacks the necessary condition.

Question 173

Keep these fundamental rules in mind when you approach Weaken questions:

Answer 173

1. The stimulus will contain an argument.
2. Focus on the conclusion.
3. The information in the stimulus is suspect. There are often reasoning errors present, and you must read the argument very carefully.
4. Weaken questions often yield strong prephrases.
5. The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include “new” information.

Question 174

Several scenarios that can occur in LSAT Weaken question stimuli are easy to
recognize and attack

Answer 174

1. Incomplete information
2. Improper comparison
3. Qualified Conclusion

Question 175

There are certain incorrect answer choices that appear frequently in weaken questions:

Answer 175

1. opposite answers
2. shell game answers
3. out of scope

Question 176

MOST causal conclusions are flawed because

Answer 176

there can be alternate explanations for the stated relationship: another cause could account for the effect; a third event could have caused both the stated cause and effect; the situation may in fact be reversed; the events may be related but not causally; or the entire occurrence could be the result of chance.

Question 177

causality occurs when

Answer 177

one event is said to make another occur. The cause is the event that makes the other occur; the effect is the event that follows from the cause.

Question 178

the cause must occur

Answer 178

before the effect, and the cause is the “activator” or “ignitor” in the relationship. The effect always happens at some point in time after the cause.

Question 179

A cause-and-effect relationship has a signature characteristic

Answer 179

the cause makes the effect happen.

Question 180

The following terms often introduce a cause and effect relationship:

Answer 180

Caused by, because of, responsible for, reason for, leads to, induced by, promoted by, determined by, produced by, product of, played a role in, was a factor in, is an effect of.

Question 181

The Difference Between Causality and Conditionality

Answer 181

1. The chronology of the two events can differ.
2. The connection between the events is different.
3. The language used to introduce the statements is different.

Question 182

In cause and effect statements there is an implied temporal relationship: the cause must

Answer 182

happen first and the effect must happen at some point in time after the cause.

Question 183

In sufficient and necessary statements there is no implied temporal relationship: the sufficient condition can

Answer 183

happen before, at the same time, or after the necessary condition.

Question 184

In cause and effect statements the events are

Answer 184

related in a direct way.

Question 185

In conditional statements the sufficient and necessary conditions are often related directly, but

Answer 185

they do not have to be.

Question 186

Causal indicators are active, almost powerful words, whereas

Answer 186

most conditional indicators do not possess those traits.

Question 187

Causal statements can be found in the

Answer 187

premise or conclusion of an argument.

Question 188

If the causal statement is the conclusion, then

Answer 188

the reasoning is flawed.

Question 189

If the causal statement is the premise, then the argument

Answer 189

may be flawed, but not because of the causal statement.

Question 190

one of the critical issues in determining whether flawed causal reasoning is present is

Answer 190

identifying where in the argument the causal assertion is made.

Question 191

The classic mistaken cause and effect reasoning is when

Answer 191

a causal assertion is made in the conclusion, or the conclusion presumes a causal relationship.

Question 192

If a causal claim is made in the premises, however, then

Answer 192

no causal reasoning error exists in the argument.

Question 193

There are two scenarios that tend to lead to causal conclusions in Logical Reasoning questions:

Answer 193

1. One event occurs before another
2. Two (or more) events occur at the same time

Question 194

When one event occurs before another event, many people fall into the trap of assuming that

Answer 194

the first event caused the second event. This does not have to be the case.

Question 195

When two events occur simultaneously, many people assume that

Answer 195

one event caused the other. While one event could have caused the other, the two events could be the result of a third event, or the two events could simply be correlated but one does not cause the other.

Question 196

Understanding the assumption that is at the heart of a causal conclusion is essential to

Answer 196

knowing why certain answers will be correct or incorrect.

Question 197

When an LSAT speaker concludes that one occurrence caused another, that speaker also assumes that

Answer 197

the stated cause is the only possible cause of the effect and that consequently the stated cause will always produce the effect. This assumption is incredibly extreme and far- reaching, and often leads to surprising answer choices that would appear incorrect unless you understand this assumption.

Question 198

The conclusion is flawed because it is not necessary that the one element caused the other to occur:

Answer 198

the two could simply be correlated in some way or the connection could be random.

Question 199

Thus, in every argument with a causal conclusion that appears on the LSAT, the speaker believes that

Answer 199

the stated cause is in fact the only cause and all other theoretically possible causes are not, in fact, actual causes.

Question 200

Whenever you identify a causal relationship in the conclusion of an LSAT problem, immediately prepare to

Answer 200

either weaken or strengthen the argument.

Question 201

Attacking a cause and effect relationship in Weaken questions almost always consists of performing one of the following tasks:

Answer 201

A. Find an alternate cause for the stated effect
B. Show that even when the cause occurs, the effect does not occur.
C. Show that although the effect occurs, the cause did not occur.
D. Show that the stated relationship is reversed
E. Show that a statistical problem exists with the data used to make the causal statement.

Question 202

If the data used to make a causal statement is in error, then

Answer 202

the validity of the causal claim is in question.

Question 203

Causality occurs when

Answer 203

one event is said to make another occur.

Question 204

The cause is the event that

Answer 204

makes the other occur.

Question 205

the effect is the event that

Answer 205

follows from the cause.

Question 206

Keep these fundamental rules in mind when approaching Strengthen, Justify the Conclusion, and Assumption questions:

Answer 206

1. The stimulus will contain an argument. Because you are being asked about the author’s reasoning, and reasoning requires a conclusion, an argument will always be present.
2. Focus on the conclusion. Almost all correct answer choices impact the conclusion.
3. The information in the stimulus is suspect. There are often reasoning errors present, and you must read the argument very carefully in order to know how to shore up the argument.
4. These questions often yield strong prephrases. Make sure you actively consider the range of possible answers before proceeding to the answer choices.
5. The answer choices are accepted as given, even if they include “new” information. Like Weaken questions, the answer choices to the problems in this chapter can bring into consideration information outside of or tangential to the stimulus.

Question 207

The Difference Between Strengthen, Justify the Conclusion, and Assumption Questions

Answer 207

Strengthen questions ask you to support the argument in any way possible. This type of answer has great range, as the additional support provided by the answer choice could be relatively minor or major.

Justify the Conclusion questions ask you to strengthen the argument so powerfully that the conclusion is made logical. Compared to a Strengthen question, the answer to a Justify question must strengthen the conclusion so it is 100% proven; anything less and the answer choice is incorrect.

Assumption questions ask you to identify a statement that the argument assumes or supposes.

Question 208

Speaking in numerical terms, any answer choice that strengthens the argument, whether by

Answer 208

1% or by 100%, is correct.

Question 209

The correct answer to a Justify the Conclusion question is

Answer 209

sufficient to prove the conclusion when added to the premises.

Question 209

Assumption questions ask you to identify a statement that

Answer 209

the argument assumes or supposes. An assumption is simply an unstated premise— what must be true in order for the argument to be true.

Question 210

Strengthen questions ask you to identify the answer choice that

Answer 210

Best supports the argument. The correct answer choice simply helps the argument in some way.

Question 211

Following are some examples of words or phrases used to indicate that your task is to strengthen the argument:

Answer 211

strengthen, support, helps, and
most justifies.

Question 212

Following are several Strengthen question stem examples from actual LSATs:

Answer 212

“Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?”
“Which one of the following, if true, most strongly supports the statement above?”
“Which one of the following, if true, does most to justify the conclusion above?”
“Each of the following, if true, supports the claim above EXCEPT:”

Question 213

How to Strengthen an Argument

Answer 213

1. Identify the conclusion—this is what you are trying to strengthen!
2. Personalize the argument.
3. Look for weaknesses in the argument.
4. Arguments that contain analogies or use surveys rely upon the validity of those analogies and surveys. Answer choices that strengthen the analogy or survey, or establish their soundness, are usually correct.
5. Remember that the correct answer can strengthen the argument just a little or a lot. This variation is what makes these questions difficult.

Question 214

Strengthen Incorrect Answer Traps

Answer 214

1. Opposite Answers. These answers do the exact opposite of what is needed—they weaken the argument.
2. In Strengthen questions, the Shell Game is usually used to support a conclusion that is similar to, but slightly different from, the one presented in the stimulus.
3. Out of Scope Answers. These answers simply miss the point of the argument and support issues that are either unrelated to the argument or tangential to the argument.

Question 215

Because Strengthen and Weaken questions require you to perform opposite tasks, to strengthen a causal conclusion you

Answer 215

take the exact opposite approach that you would in a Weaken question.

Question 216

In Strengthen questions, supporting a cause and effect relationship almost always consists of performing one of the following tasks:

Answer 216

A. Eliminate any alternate causes for the stated effect.
B. Show that when the cause occurs, the effect occurs.
C. Show that when the cause does not occur, the effect does not occur.
D. Eliminate the possibility that the stated relationships

Question 217

Remember, to
strengthen a
causal argument
you must perform
tasks that

Answer 217

are
opposite of those
that weaken a
causal argument.

Question 218

Because the author believes there is only one cause (the stated cause in
the argument), (strengthen)

Answer 218

eliminating other possible causes strengthens the
conclusion.

Question 219

Because the author believes that the cause always produces the effect

Answer 219

Because the author believes that the cause always produces the effect

Question 220

Because the author believes that the cause and effect relationship is
correctly stated, eliminating the possibility that the

Answer 220

relationship is
backwards (the claimed effect is actually the cause of the claimed cause)
strengthens the conclusion

Question 221

If the data used to make a causal statement is in error, then the validity of
the causal claim is in question. Any information that eliminates error or
reduces the possibility of error will

Answer 221

support the argument.

Question 222

Strengthen questions ask you to identify

Answer 222

the answer choice that best supports
the argument.

Question 223

Use the following points to effectively strengthen arguments:

Answer 223

1. Identify the conclusion—this is what you are trying to strengthen!
2. Personalize the argument.
3. Look for weaknesses or holes in the argument.

Question 224

The same type of wrong answer traps appear in Strengthen as in Weaken
questions

Answer 224

1. Opposite Answers.
2. Shell Game Answers.
3. Out of Scope Answers.

Question 225

In Strengthen questions, supporting a cause and effect relationship almost
always consists of performing one of the following tasks:

Answer 225

A. Eliminate any alternate causes for the stated effect
B. Show that when the cause occurs, the effect occurs
C. Show that when the cause does not occur, the effect does not occur
D. Eliminate the possibility that the stated relationship is reversed
E. Show that the data used to make the causal statement is accurate, or
eliminate possible problems with the data

Question 226

Justify the Conclusion questions require you to select an answer choice that

Answer 226

logically proves the conclusion of the argument.

Question 227

Justify questions are perfect

Answer 227

strengthening questions: the correct answer will strengthen the argument so well
that the conclusion must follow from the combination of the premises and the
correct answer choice.

Question 228

Apply the Justify FormulaTM

Answer 228

Premises + Answer choice = Conclusion

Question 229

“The conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following
is assumed?”

Answer 229

Justify

Question 230

“The conclusion above follows logically if which one of the following
is assumed?”

Answer 230

Justify

Question 231

“Which one of the following, if assumed, would allow the conclusion to
be properly drawn?”

Answer 231

Justify

Question 232

“Which one of the following, if true, enables the conclusion to be
properly drawn?”

Answer 232

Justify

Question 233

“Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the argument’s
conclusion to be properly inferred?”

Answer 233

Justify

Question 234

“Which one of the following is an assumption that would serve to justify
the conclusion above?”

Answer 234

Justify

Question 234

“The environmentalist’s conclusion would be properly drawn if it were
true that the”

Answer 234

Justify

Question 235

“The conclusion above is properly drawn if which one of the following
is assumed?”

Answer 235

Justify

Question 236

most Justify stimuli either use

Answer 236

Conditional Reasoning or contain numbers
and percentages. Because both forms of reasoning allow for certainty
when drawing a conclusion.

Question 237

Stimuli that
contain numbers
or percentages in
the stimulus also
allow for

Answer 237

the
exactitude justify
questions require.

Question 238

Strengthen
questions with
the phrase “most
justifies” in the
question stem
can largely be
treated like

Answer 238

Justify questions,
but you must
understand there
is a window that
allows for an
answer that does
not perfectly
justify the
conclusion.

Question 239

Because Justify the Conclusion questions can be
characterized in formulaic terms, you can often solve these questions using a
mechanistic approach. This approach requires

Answer 239

1. Any “new” element in the conclusion will appear in the correct answer.
2. Elements that are common to the conclusion and at least one premise
   normally do not appear in the correct answer.
3. Elements that appear in the premises but not the conclusion usually
   appear in the correct answer.

Question 240

Justify Mechanical Approach 1. Any “new” element in the conclusion will appear in the correct answer.

Answer 240

“New” or “rogue” elements are those that did not appear in any of the
premises. By definition, any new element in the conclusion must be
proven to occur, and so if the new element is not in the premises then it
must be introduced in the correct answer choice.

Question 241

Justify Mechanical Approach 2. Elements that are common to the conclusion and at least one premise
normally do not appear in the correct answer

Answer 241

If an element occurs in both the conclusion and premises, then there is a
bridge already established that justifies the presence of the element in the
conclusion. Hence, the correct answer need not contain this element.

Question 242

Justify Mechanical Approach 3. Elements that appear in the premises but not the conclusion usually
appear in the correct answer.

Answer 242

Although these premise elements do not have to appear in the correct
answer, they often do because they represent a convenient linking point.

Question 243

Justify mechanical rules condense to the following:

Answer 243

link new elements in the
premises and conclusion and ignore elements common to both.

Question 244

Most Justify the Conclusion question stems typically contain some of the
following three features:

Answer 244

1. The stem uses the word “if” or another sufficient condition indicator.
2. The stem uses the phrase “allows the conclusion to be properly
   drawn” or “enables the conclusion to be properly drawn.”
3. The stem does not lessen the degree of justification.

Question 245

The correct
answer to an
Assumption
question is

Answer 245

a statement the
author must
believe in order for
the conclusion to
make sense.

Question 246

“Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument
above?”

Answer 246

Assumption

Question 247

“Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the argument
depends?”

Answer 247

Assumption

Question 248

“The argument assumes which one of the following?

Answer 248

Assumption

Question 249

“The conclusion in the passage above relies on which one of the
following assumptions?”

Answer 249

Assumption

Question 250

“The position taken above presupposes which one of the following?”

Answer 250

Assumption

Question 251

“The conclusion cited does not follow unless”

Answer 251

Assumption

Question 252

An assumption is described solely as a linking statement, one that

Answer 252

links two premises or links a premise to the conclusion.

Question 253

On the LSAT, assumptions play one of two roles

Answer 253

the Supporter or the
Defender

Question 254

The Supporter role is the traditional linking role, where

Answer 254

an
assumption connects the pieces of the argument.

Question 255

Because Supporters often connect “new” or “rogue” pieces of information in
the argument, the Supporter role generally

Answer 255

appears similar to the Justify the
Conclusion answers.

Question 256

Justify the Conclusion answers are assumptions of the argument,
especially when

Answer 256

the argument contains a conditional structure.

Question 257

The Supporter
assumption, by definition,

Answer 257

closes the hole by linking the elements together.

Question 258

Defender assumptions

Answer 258

protect the
argument by eliminating ideas that could weaken the argument.

Question 259

In order to
believe the argument is “well-considered and airtight,” an author must

Answer 259

assume
that every possible objection has been considered and rejected.

Question 260

Defender Assumption:

Answer 260

These assumptions contain statements that
eliminate ideas or assertions that would
undermine the conclusion. In this sense, they
“defend” the argument by showing that a
possible source of attack has been eliminated.

Question 260

Supporter Assumption

Answer 260

These assumptions link together new or rogue
elements in the stimulus or fill logical gaps in the
argument.

Question 261

The Assumption Negation TechniqueTM
Only a few types of LSAT questions allow you to double-check your answer.
Assumption questions are one of those types, and you should use the
Assumption Negation Technique to decide between Contenders or to confirm
that the answer you have chosen is correct.

Answer 261

1. Logically negate the answer choices under consideration.
2. The negated answer choice that attacks the argument will be the correct
   answer. When the correct answer choice is negated, the answer must weaken the
   argument

Question 262

To logically
negate a
conditional
statement,
negate

Answer 262

the
necessary
condition.

Question 263

Three Quirks of Assumption Question Answer Choices

Answer 263

1. Watch for answers starting with the phrase “at least one” or “at least
   some.”
2. Avoid answers that claim an idea was the most important consideration
   for the author.
3. Watch for the use of “not” or negatives in assumption answer choices.

Question 264

The correct answer to an
Assumption question will normally fit one of the following categories:

Answer 264

A. Eliminates any alternate cause for the stated effect
B. Shows that when the cause occurs, the effect occurs
C. Shows that when the cause does not occur, the effect does not occur
D. Eliminates the possibility that the stated relationship is reversed
E. Shows that the data used to make the causal statement are accurate, or
eliminates possible problems with the data

Question 265

An assumption is simply an

Answer 265

an unstated premise of the argument; that is, an
integral component of the argument that the author takes for granted and leaves
unsaid

Question 266

Resolve the Paradox questions are generally easy to spot because of their
distinctive stimuli:

Answer 266

each stimulus presents a situation where two ideas or
occurrences contradict each other.

Question 267

Besides the discrepant or contradictory facts, most Resolve the Paradox stimuli
contain the following features:

Answer 267

1. No conclusion
2. Language of contradiction

Question 268

In order to present a paradox, the test makers use language that signals a
contradiction is present, such as:

Answer 268

But, However, Yet, Although, Paradoxically,
Surprisingly

Question 269

Key words that indicate your task is to resolve a problem

Answer 269

Action: Resolve, explain, reconcile.
Problem: Paradox, Discrepancy, contradiction, conflict, puzzle.

Question 270

“Which one of the following, if true, would most effectively resolve the
apparent paradox above?”

Answer 270

Paradox

Question 271

“Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent
discrepancy in the passage above?”

Answer 271

Paradox

Question 272

“Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the puzzling
fact cited above?”

Answer 272

Paradox

Question 273

“Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the
discrepancy indicated above?”

Answer 273

Paradox

Question 274

“Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent
conflict described above?”

Answer 274

Paradox

Question 275

The correct
answer will
positively resolve
the paradox so
that

Answer 275

both sides
are true and the
conditions in the
stimulus have
been met.

Question 276

If an answer
supports or
proves only one
side of the
paradox, that
answer will be

Answer 276

incorrect. The
correct answer
must show how
both sides
coexist.

Question 277

The
correct answer will actively resolve the paradox, that is, it will

Answer 277

allow both sides
to be factually correct and it will either explain how the situation came into
being or add a piece of information that shows how the two ideas or
occurrences can coexist.

Question 278

Because you are not seeking to disprove one side of the situation in a paradox, you must
select the answer choice that

Answer 278

contains a possible cause of the situation.

Question 279

if the
stimulus contains
a paradox where
two items are
different, then

Answer 279

an
answer choice
that explains why
the two are
similar cannot be
correct.

Question 279

If the stimulus
contains a
paradox where
two items are
similar, then

Answer 279

an
answer choice
that explains a
difference
between the two
cannot be
correct.

Question 280

A similarity cannot
explain a
difference, and a
difference cannot

Answer 280

explain a
similarity.

Question 281

When attempting to resolve the paradox in the stimulus, you must address

Answer 281

the
facts of the situation.

Question 282

In paradox many incorrect answers will try to lure you with

Answer 282

reasonable solutions that do not quite meet the stated facts. These answers are incorrect. The correct answer must conform to the specifics of the stimulus.

Question 283

Each Resolve the Paradox stimulus presents a situation where

Answer 283

two ideas or
occurrences contradict each other.

Question 284

Besides the discrepant or contradictory facts, most Resolve the Paradox stimuli
contain the following features:

Answer 284

1. No conclusion
2. Language of contradiction

Question 285

In paradox the following types of
answers are incorrect:

Answer 285

1. Explains only one side of the paradox
2. Similarities and differences

Question 286

Method of Reasoning questions require you to

Answer 286

select the answer choice that best
describes the method used by the author to make the argument.

Question 287

Method of Reasoning questions
feature the following information structure, modified slightly for the abstract
nature of these questions:

Answer 287

1. You can use only the information in the stimulus to prove the correct
   answer choice.
2. Any answer choice that describes an element or a situation that does not
   occur in the stimulus is incorrect.

Question 288

As you attack
each question,
keep in mind that
Method of
Reasoning
questions are
simply

Answer 288

abstract
Must Be True
questions. Use
the information in
the stimulus to
prove or disprove
each answer
choice

Question 289

Which one of the following most accurately
describes the relationship between Jane’s argument
and Mark’s argument?

Answer 289

Method of Reasoning

Question 290

“The claim that inventors sometimes serve as their own engineers plays
which one of the following roles in the argument?”

Answer 290

Method of Reasoning

Question 291

“The statement ‘thinking machines closely modeled on the brain are also
likely to fail’ serves which one of the following roles in Yang’s
argument?”

Answer 291

Method of Reasoning

Question 292

“The assertion that a later artist tampered with Veronese’s painting
serves which one of the following functions in the curator’s argument?”

Answer 292

Method of Reasoning

Question 293

The claim that people have positive or negative
responses to many nonsense words plays which one
of the following roles in the argument?

Answer 293

Method of Reasoning

Question 294

Ruth responds to Jorge’s criticism by

Answer 294

Method of Reasoning

Question 295

Which one of the following most accurately
describes the role played in the psychologist’s
argument by the claim that the obligation to express
gratitude cannot be fulfilled anonymously?

Answer 295

Method of Reasoning

Question 296

Sue challenges Anne’s reasoning by

Answer 296

Method of Reasoning

Question 297

Which one of the following most accurately
describes the role played in the argument by the
statement that zooplankton feed upon
phytoplankton?

Answer 297

Method of Reasoning

Question 298

The claim that humans are still biologically adapted
to a diet of wild foods plays which one of the
following roles in the nutritionist’s argument?

Answer 298

Method of Reasoning

Question 299

Jerome responds to Ingrid’s claim by

Answer 299

Method of Reasoning

Question 300

The phrase “certain traits like herding ability risk
being lost among pedigreed dogs” serves which one
of the following functions in the argument?

Answer 300

Method of Reasoning

Question 301

Method of Reasoning question stems use a variety of formats, but in each case
the stem refers to the method, technique, strategy, or process used by the author
while making the argument. Here are several question stem examples:

Answer 301

“The method of the argument is to”
“The argument proceeds by”
“The argument derives its conclusion by”
“Which one of the following describes the technique of reasoning used
above?”
“Which one of the following is an argumentative strategy employed in
the argument?”
“The argument employs which one of the following reasoning
techniques?”
“Aiesha responds to Adam’s argument by”

Question 302

The Fact Test in Method of Reasoning Questions

Answer 302

If an answer choice describes an event that did not occur in the stimulus,
then that answer is incorrect.

Question 303

The stimulus for a Method Reasoning question will contain

Answer 303

an argument, and
the argument can contain either valid or invalid reasoning.

Question 304

Incorrect Answers in Method of Reasoning Questions

Answer 304

1. “New” Element Answers
2. Half Right, Half Wrong Answer
3. Exaggerated Answers
4. The Opposite Answer
5. The Reverse Answer

Question 305

“The claim that inventors sometimes serve as their own engineers plays
which one of the following roles in the argument?”

Answer 305

Method of Reasoning-Argument Part

Question 306

“The statement ‘thinking machines closely modeled on the brain are also
likely to fail’ serves which one of the following roles in Yang’s
argument?”

Answer 306

Method of Reasoning-Argument Part

Question 307

“The assertion that a later artist tampered with Veronese’s painting
serves which one of the following functions in the curator’s argument?”

Answer 307

Method of Reasoning-Argument Part

Question 308

The stimuli that accompany Method-AP questions tend to be more complex
than the average LSAT stimulus. Some problems feature

Answer 308

two conclusions (one
is the main conclusion, the other is a subsidiary conclusion), and often the
stimulus includes two different viewpoints or the use of counterpremises.

Question 309

One trick used by the test makers in Method-AP questions is to create wrong
answers that

Answer 309

describe parts of the argument other than the part named in the
question stem. These answers are particularly attractive because they do
describe a part of the argument, just not the part referenced in the question stem.

Question 310

Argument Part (AP) questions are a specific subset of Method of Reasoning
questions. In Method-AP questions, the question stem

Answer 310

cites a specific portion of
the stimulus and then asks you to identify the role that the cited portion plays in
the structure of the argument.

Question 311

Flaw in the Reasoning questions are exactly the same as Method of Reasoning
questions with the important exception

Answer 311

that the question stem indicates that the
reasoning in the stimulus is flawed.

Question 312

“Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the
argument’s reasoning?”

Answer 312

Flaw

Question 313

“The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the
ground that the argument”

Answer 313

Flaw

Question 314

“The reasoning above is flawed because it fails to recognize that”

Answer 314

Flaw

Question 315

“A questionable aspect of the reasoning above is that it”

Answer 315

Flaw

Question 316

“The reasoning in the argument is fallacious because the argument”

Answer 316

Flaw

Question 317

Which one of the following is a questionable
argumentative strategy employed in the editorial’s
argument?

Answer 317

Flaw

Question 318

The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on
which one of the following grounds?

Answer 318

Flaw

Question 319

The reasoning in the activist’s argument is flawed
because that argument

Answer 319

Flaw

Question 320

The reasoning in the philosopher’s argument is
flawed because the argument

Answer 320

Flaw

Question 321

The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the
argument

Answer 321

Flaw

Question 322

The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the
argument

Answer 322

Flaw

Question 323

The reasoning in the astronomer’s argument is flawed
because this argument

Answer 323

Flaw

Question 324

The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to
criticism on the grounds that the argument

Answer 324

Flaw

Question 325

In flaw the correct answer will identify

Answer 325

the error in the author’s reasoning and
then describe that error in general terms. Beware of answers that describe a
portion of the stimulus but fail to identify the error in the reasoning.

Question 326

Flaw : Uncertain Use of a Term or Concept

Answer 326

As an argument progresses, the author must use each term in a constant,
coherent fashion. Using a term in different ways is inherently confusing and
undermines the integrity of the argument

Question 327

In Flaw “depending on the ambiguous use of a key term”

Answer 327

Uncertain Use of a Term or Concept

Question 328

In Flaw “it confuses two different meanings of the word ‘solve’ ”

Answer 328

Uncertain Use of a Term or Concept

Question 329

In Flaw “relies on interpreting a key term in two different ways”

Answer 329

Uncertain Use of a Term or Concept

Question 330

In Flaw “equivocates with respect to a central concept”

Answer 330

Uncertain Use of a Term or Concept

Question 331

In Flaw “allows a key term to shift in meaning from one use to the next”

Answer 331

Uncertain Use of a Term or Concept

Question 332

In Flaw “fails to define the term”

Answer 332

Uncertain Use of a Term or Concept

Question 333

ad hominem/A source argument can take different forms including

Answer 333

1. Focusing on the motives of the source.
2. Focusing on the actions of the source (as in the above example).

Question 333

ad hominem/Source Argument

Answer 333

this type of flawed argument attacks the person
(or source) instead of the argument they advance. Because the LSAT is
concerned solely with argument forms, a speaker can never validly attack the
character or motives of a person; instead, a speaker must always attack the
argument advanced by a person.

Question 334

“makes an attack on the character of opponents”

Answer 334

ad hominem/source argument

Question 335

“it is directed against the proponent of a claim rather than against the
claim itself”

Answer 335

ad hominem/source argument

Question 336

“he directs his criticism against the person making the argument rather
than directing it against the argument itself”

Answer 336

ad hominem/source argument

Question 337

“it draws conclusions about the merit of a position and about the content
of that position from evidence about the position’s source”

Answer 337

ad hominem/source argument

Question 338

“assuming that a claim is false on the grounds that the person defending
it is of questionable character”

Answer 338

ad hominem/source argument

Question 339

Circular Reasoning

Answer 339

In circular reasoning the author assumes as true what is supposed to be proved.

Question 340

“it assumes what it seeks to establish”

Answer 340

Circular Reasoning

Question 341

“argues circularly by assuming the conclusion is true in stating the
premises”

Answer 341

Circular Reasoning

Question 342

“presupposes the truth of what it sets out to prove”

Answer 342

Circular Reasoning

Question 343

“the argument assumes what it is attempting to demonstrate”

Answer 343

Circular Reasoning

Question 344

“it takes for granted the very claim that it sets out to establish”

Answer 344

Circular Reasoning

Question 345

“it offers, in place of support for its conclusion, a mere restatement of
that conclusion”

Answer 345

Circular Reasoning

Question 346

Errors of Conditional Reasoning

Answer 346

When describing a Mistaken Negation or a Mistaken Reversal, the test makers
must focus on the error common to both: confusing the sufficient condition with
the necessary condition.

Question 347

Remember, a
Mistaken
Negation and a
Mistaken
Reversal are

Answer 347

contrapositives of
each other, so the
error behind both
is identical.

Question 348

In flaw: Confuses a necessary condition for a sufficient condition/ Confuses a sufficient condition for a necessary condition

Answer 348

Errors of Conditional Reasoning

Question 349

if you identify a stimulus with conditional reasoning and are
asked a Flaw question, you can

Answer 349

quickly scan the answers for the one answer
that contains “sufficient,” “necessary,” or both.

Question 350

In flaw : Mistaken Cause and Effect

Answer 350

1. Assuming a causal relationship on the basis of the sequence of events.
2. Assuming a causal relationship when only a correlation exists.
3. Failure to consider an alternate cause for the effect, or an alternate cause
   for both the cause and the effect.
4. Failure to consider that the events may be reversed.

Question 351

In flaw: “mistakes the observation that one thing happens after another for proof
that the second thing is the result of the first”

Answer 351

“mistakes the observation that one thing happens after another for proof
that the second thing is the result of the first”

Question 352

In flaw: “mistakes a temporal relationship for a causal relationship”

Answer 352

“mistakes a temporal relationship for a causal relationship”

Question 353

In flaw: “assumes a causal relationship where only a correlation has been
indicated”

Answer 353

“assumes a causal relationship where only a correlation has been
indicated”

Question 353

In flaw: “confusing the coincidence of two events with a causal relation between
the two”

Answer 353

“confusing the coincidence of two events with a causal relation between
the two”

Question 354

In flaw: “fails to exclude an alternative explanation for the observed effect”

Answer 354

“fails to exclude an alternative explanation for the observed effect”

Question 355

In flaw: “overlooks the possibility that the same thing may causally contribute
both to education and to good health”

Answer 355

“overlooks the possibility that the same thing may causally contribute
both to education and to good health”

Question 356

In flaw: “the author mistakes an effect for a cause”

Answer 356

“the author mistakes an effect for a cause”

Question 357

Straw Man

Answer 357

This error occurs when an author attempts to attack an opponent’s position by
ignoring the actual statements made by the opposing speaker and instead
distorts and refashions the argument, making it weaker in the process.

Question 358

Often this error is accompanied by the phrase “what you’re saying is” or “if I
understand you correctly,”

Answer 358

Straw man

Question 359

“refutes a distorted version of an opposing position”

Answer 359

Straw man

Question 360

“misdescribing the student representative’s position, thereby making it
easier to challenge”

Answer 360

Straw man

Question 361

“portrays opponents’ views as more extreme than they really are”

Answer 361

Straw man

Question 362

“distorts the proposal advocated by opponents”

Answer 362

Straw man

Question 363

General Lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion

Answer 363

Some LSAT authors misuse information to such a degree that they fail to
provide any information to support their conclusion or they provide information
that is irrelevant to their conclusion.

Question 364

Note the use of
the construction
“some critics
claim…” As usual,
the author’s main
point is that

Answer 364

the
claim that the
critics are making
is wrong

Question 365

“The author cites irrelevant data.”

Answer 365

General Lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion

Question 366

“draws a conclusion that is broader in scope than is warranted by the
evidence advanced”

Answer 366

General Lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion

Question 367

“It uses irrelevant facts to justify a claim about the quality of the
disputed product.”

Answer 367

General Lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion

Question 368

“It fails to give any reason for the judgment it reaches.”

Answer 368

General Lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion

Question 369

“It introduces information unrelated to its conclusion as evidence in
support of that conclusion.”

Answer 369

General Lack of Relevant Evidence for the Conclusion

Question 370

Internal Contradiction

Answer 370

an internal contradiction
(also known as a self-contradiction) occurs when an author makes conflicting
statements

Question 371

“bases a conclusion on claims that are inconsistent with each other”

Answer 371

Internal Contradiction

Question 372

“the author makes incompatible assumptions”

Answer 372

Internal Contradiction

Question 373

“introduce information that actually contradicts the conclusion”

Answer 373

Internal Contradiction

Question 374

“offers in support of its conclusion pieces of evidence that are mutually
contradictory”

Answer 374

Internal Contradiction

Question 375

“some of the evidence presented in support of the conclusion is
inconsistent with other evidence provided”

Answer 375

Internal Contradiction

Question 376

“assumes something that it later denies, resulting in a contradiction”

Answer 376

Internal Contradiction

Question 377

“the judgement of experts is applied to a matter in which their
expertise is irrelevant”

Answer 377

Appeal to Authority

Question 378

Appeal Fallacies

Answer 378

1. Appeal to Authority
2. Appeal to Popular Opinion/Appeal to Numbers
3. Appeal to Emotion

Question 379

1. Appeal to Authority

Answer 379

An Appeal to Authority uses the opinion of an authority in an attempt to
persuade the reader. The flaw in this form of reasoning is that the authority may not have relevant knowledge or all the information
regarding a situation, or there may a difference of opinion among
experts as to what is true in the case.

Question 380

“the argument inappropriately appeals to the authority of the
mayor”

Answer 380

Appeal to Authority

Question 381

“it relies on the judgment of experts in a matter to which their
expertise is irrelevant”

Answer 381

Appeal to Authority

Question 382

“it treats popular opinion as if it constituted conclusive evidence
for a claim”

Answer 382

Appeal to Popular Opinion/Appeal to Numbers

Question 382

“accepts a claim on mere authority, without requiring sufficient
justification”

Answer 382

Appeal to Authority

Question 383

Appeal to Popular Opinion/Appeal to Numbers

Answer 383

This error states that a position is true because the majority believes it to
be true.

Question 384

“attempts to discredit legislation by appealing to public
sentiment”

Answer 384

Appeal to Popular Opinion/Appeal to Numbers

Question 385

“a claim is inferred to be false merely because a majority of people believe it to be false”

Answer 385

Appeal to Popular Opinion/Appeal to Numbers

Question 386

“the argument, instead of providing adequate reasons in support
of its conclusion, makes an appeal to popular opinion”

Answer 386

Appeal to Popular Opinion/Appeal to Numbers

Question 387

Appeal to Emotion

Answer 387

An Appeal to Emotion occurs when emotions or emotionally-charged
language is used in an attempt to persuade the reader.

Question 388

“attempts to persuade by making an emotional appeal”

Answer 388

Appeal to Emotion

Question 389

“uses emotive language in labeling the proposals”

Answer 389

Appeal to Emotion

Question 390

“the argument appeals to emotion rather than reason”

Answer 390

Appeal to Emotion

Question 391

Survey Errors

Answer 391

-The survey uses a biased sample
-The survey questions are improperly constructed.
-Respondents to the survey give inaccurate responses.

Question 392

“uses evidence drawn from a small sample that may well be
unrepresentative”

Answer 392

Survey Errors

Question 393

“generalizes from an unrepresentative sample”

Answer 393

Survey Errors

Question 394

“states a generalization based on a selection that is not representative of
the group about which the generalization is supposed to hold true”

Answer 394

Survey Errors

Question 395

“supports a universal claim on the basis of a single example”

Answer 395

Exceptional Case/Overgeneralization

Question 395

Exceptional Case/Overgeneralization

Answer 395

This error takes a small number of instances and treats those instances as if they
support a broad, sweeping conclusion.

Question 396

“The argument generalizes from too small a sample of cases

Answer 396

Exceptional Case/Overgeneralization

Question 397

“Too general a conclusion is made about investing on the basis of a
single experiment”

Answer 397

Exceptional Case/Overgeneralization

Question 398

“bases a general claim on a few exceptional instances”

Answer 398

Exceptional Case/Overgeneralization

Question 399

Composition and division errors involve

Answer 399

Judgments made about groups and
parts of a group.

Question 400

Errors of Composition and Division

Answer 400

An error of composition occurs when the author attributes a characteristic of
part of the group to the group as a whole or to each member of the group.

Question 401

“assuming that because something is true of each of the parts of a whole
it is true of the whole itself”

Answer 401

Errors of Composition and Division

Question 401

“treats as similar two cases that are different in a critical respect”

Answer 401

False Analogy

Question 402

“takes the view of one lawyer to represent the views of all lawyers”

Answer 402

Errors of Composition and Division

Question 402

“improperly infers that each and every scientist has a certain
characteristic from the premise that most scientists have that
characteristic”

Answer 402

Errors of Composition and Division

Question 403

An error of division occurs when

Answer 403

the author attributes a characteristic of the
whole (or each member of the whole) to a part of the group

Question 404

False Analogy

Answer 404

occurs when the
author uses an analogy that too dissimilar to the original situation to be
applicable.

Question 405

“treats two kinds of things that differ in important respects as if they do
not differ”

Answer 405

False Analogy

Question 406

False Dilemma

Answer 406

assumes that only two courses of action are available when
there may be others.

Question 406

Errors in the Use of Evidence

Answer 406

Mis-assessing the force of evidence is a frequent error committed by LSAT
authors.

Question 407

“treats failure to prove a claim as constituting denial of that
claim”

Answer 407

Lack of evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is false

Question 408

“taking a lack of evidence for a claim as evidence undermining
that claim”

Answer 408

Lack of evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is false

Question 409

“There has been no evidence given against the existence of God,
so God must exist.”

Answer 409

Lack of evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is
true.

Question 410

“it confuses undermining an argument in support of a given
conclusion with showing that the conclusion itself is false”

Answer 410

Some evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is false.

Question 411

“treating the failure to establish that a certain claim is false as equivalent to a demonstration that the claim is true”

Answer 411

Lack of evidence against a position is taken to prove that position is
true.

Question 412

“the argument takes evidence showing merely that its conclusion
could be true to constitute evidence showing that the conclusion
is in fact true”

Answer 412

Some evidence for a position is taken to prove that position is true

Question 413

“treats a claim about what is currently the case as if it were a claim about
what has been the case for an extended period”

Answer 413

Time Shift Errors

Question 413

Time Shift Errors

Answer 413

the mistake involves assuming
that conditions will remain constant over time, and that what was the case in the
past will be the case in the present or future.

Question 414

“uncritically draws an inference from what has been true in the past to
what will be true in the future”

Answer 414

Time Shift Errors

Question 415

“the argument confuses the percentage of the budget spent on a program
with the overall amount spent on that program”

Answer 415

Numbers and Percentage Errors

Question 416

Which one of the following is a questionable
argumentative strategy employed in the editorial’s
argument?

Answer 416

Flaw in the reasoning

Question 417

The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on
which one of the following grounds?

Answer 417

Flaw in the reasoning

Question 418

The reasoning in the activist’s argument is flawed
because that argument

Answer 418

Flaw in the reasoning

Question 419

The reasoning in the philosopher’s argument is
flawed because the argument

Answer 419

Flaw in the reasoning

Question 420

The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the
argument

Answer 420

Flaw in the reasoning

Question 421

The reasoning in the astronomer’s argument is flawed
because this argument

Answer 421

Flaw in the reasoning

Question 421

The reasoning in the argument is most vulnerable to
criticism on the grounds that the argument

Answer 421

Flaw in the reasoning

Question 422

The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the
argument

Answer 422

Flaw in the reasoning

Question 423

Parallel Reasoning questions ask you to

Answer 423

identify the answer choice that contains
reasoning most similar in structure to the reasoning in the stimulus.

Question 424

“Which one of the following is most closely parallel in its reasoning to
the reasoning in the argument above?”

Answer 424

Parallel Reasoning Questions

Question 425

“Which one of the following exhibits a pattern of reasoning most similar
to that exhibited by the argument above?”

Answer 425

Parallel Reasoning Questions

Question 426

“Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its logical
features to the argument above?”

Answer 426

Parallel Reasoning Questions

Question 427

“The structure of the reasoning in the argument above is most parallel to
that in which one of the following?”

Answer 427

Parallel Reasoning Questions

Question 428

“Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its pattern of
reasoning to the argument above?”

Answer 428

Parallel Reasoning Questions

Question 429

The stimulus for a Parallel Reasoning question can contain either

Answer 429

valid or
invalid reasoning

Question 430

“The flawed reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to
the flawed reasoning in the argument above?”

Answer 430

Parallel Flaw

Question 431

When a Parallel Reasoning stimulus contains flawed reasoning, we

Answer 431

identify it as
a Parallel Flaw question.

Question 432

“The questionable pattern of reasoning in the argument is most similar to
that in which one of the following?”

Answer 432

Parallel Flaw

Question 433

In Parallel Reasoning questions, the topic or subject matter in the
stimulus and the answer choices is

Answer 433

irrelevant because you are looking
for the argument that has a similar pattern of reasoning. Often, same subject answer choices are used to attract the student who fails to focus
on the reasoning in the stimulus.

Question 434

In parallel flaw order of presentation of the premises and conclusion in the stimulus
is

Answer 434

also irrelevant.

Question 435

In parallel flaw elements that must be paralleled,

Answer 435

1. The Method of Reasoning
2. The Validity of the Argument
3. The Conclusion
4. The Premises

Question 436

Because Parallel
Reasoning
questions are so
long and time consuming, they
often appear
toward the end of
a section. This
placement is the
result of an old
psychometric
trick:

Answer 436

just when a
test taker is
feeling pressured
to work faster
and finish the
section, the test
makers slip in a
time-consuming
question that
slows students
down and causes
frustration.

Question 437

The following list outlines the four tests you can use to evaluate
answers, in rough order of their usefulness:
(Parallel Flaw)

Answer 437

1. Match the Method of Reasoning
2. Match the Conclusion
3. Match the Premises
4. Match the Validity of the Argument

Question 438

Which one of the following exhibits a flawed pattern
of reasoning most similar to that in the argument
above?

Answer 438

Parallel Flaw

Question 439

The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument
above is most similar to that in which one of the
following?

Answer 439

Parallel Flaw

Question 440

The pattern of reasoning displayed in the argument
above is most closely paralleled by that in which one
of the following arguments?

Answer 440

Parallel Flaw

Question 441

If none of the four tests of analysis reveals the answer, or if nothing stands out
to you when you examine the argument, you can always fall back on (Parallel Flaw)

Answer 441

on describing
the stimulus in abstract terms

Question 442

The questionable reasoning in the argument above is
most closely paralleled by that in which one of the
following?

Answer 442

Parallel Flaw

Question 443

If all else fails, create a short statement that summarizes
(Parallel Flaw)

Answer 443

the “action” in the
argument. Then, take the abstraction and compare it to each argument. Does it
match your generalized version of the stimulus? If not, the answer is incorrect

Question 444

Which one of the following arguments exhibits
flawed reasoning most similar to that exhibited by
the argument above?

Answer 444

Parallel Flaw

Question 445

The flawed reasoning in which one of the following
is most similar to that in the commentator’s
argument?

Answer 445

Parallel Flaw

Question 446

Which one of the following arguments has a flawed
pattern of reasoning most like the flawed reasoning
in the argument above?

Answer 446

Parallel Flaw

Question 447

Which one of the following exhibits both of the
logical flaws exhibited by the argument above?

Answer 447

Parallel Flaw

Question 448

Misconception #1: Increasing percentages automatically lead to

Answer 448

increasing numbers. Most people assume that if a percentage becomes larger, the number that
corresponds to that percentage must also get larger. This is not
necessarily true because the overall size of the group under discussion
could get smaller

Question 449

If the percentage
increases but the
corresponding
number
decreases, then

Answer 449

the overall total
must have
decreased.

Question 450

Misconception #2: Decreasing percentages automatically lead to

Answer 450

decreasing numbers. Just because a percentage decreases does not necessarily mean that the corresponding
number must become smaller.

Question 451

Misconception #3: Increasing numbers automatically lead to

Answer 451

increasing
percentages. Just as increasing percentages do not automatically translate into
increasing numbers, the reverse is also true.

Question 452

Misconception #4: Decreasing numbers automatically lead to

Answer 452

decreasing
percentages.

Question 453

Misconception #5: Large numbers automatically

Answer 453

mean large
percentages, and small numbers automatically mean
small percentages.

Question 454

Misconception #6: Large percentages automatically mean large
numbers, and

Answer 454

small percentages automatically mean
small numbers.

Question 455

Numerical situations normally hinge on three elements:

Answer 455

an overall total, a
number within that total, and a percentage within the total. LSAT problems will
often give you one of the elements, but without at least two elements present,
you cannot make a definitive judgment about what is occurring with another
element. When you are given just percentage information, you cannot make a
judgment about numbers. Likewise, when you are given just numerical
information you cannot make a judgement about percentages.

Question 456

Knowledge of a
percentage is
insufficient to
allow you to make
a determination
about the size of
the number
because

Answer 456

the
exact size of the
overall total is
unknown, and
changes in the
overall total will
directly affect
the internal
numbers and
percentages.

Question 457

Words used to introduce numerical ideas:

Answer 457

Amount, Quantity, Sum, Total, Count, Tally

Question 458

Words used to introduce percentage ideas:

Answer 458

Percent, Proportion, Fraction, Ratio, Incidence, Likelihood, Probability, Segment, Share

Question 459

If the stimulus contains percentage or proportion information only, avoid

Answer 459

answers that contain hard numbers.

Question 460

If the stimulus contains only numerical information, avoid answers that

Answer 460

contain percentage or proportion information.

Question 461

If the stimulus contains both percentage and numerical information, any
answer choice that

Answer 461

contains numbers, percentages, or both may be true.

Question 462

The logical opposite is the statement

Answer 462

requiring the least amount of “work” to
negate the original statement.

Question 463

The polar opposite typically goes much further than

Answer 463

logical opposite.

Question 464

“All” logical opposite

Answer 464

Not All

Question 465

“Some” logical opposite

Answer 465

None

Question 466

“Everywhere” logical opposite

Answer 466

Not Everywhere

Question 467

“always” logical opposite

Answer 467

“Not always”

Question 468

“somewhere” logical opposite

Answer 468

No where

Question 469

“Never” logical opposite

Answer 469

Sometimes

Question 470

To negate a conditional statement you must show that

Answer 470

the necessary condition is
not in fact necessary.

Question 471

Watch for answers starting with the phrase “at least one” or “at least
some.” when an Assumption answer choice starts with either of the above constructions the chances are unusually high that

Answer 471

the answer will be correct. However, if you spot an answer with that construction, do not simply assume the answer is correct; instead, use the proper negation (“None”) and check the answer with the
Assumption Negation Technique

Question 472

In assumption avoid answers that claim an idea was the most important consideration
for the author. These answers typically use constructions such as “the primary
purpose,” “the top priority,” or “the main factor.” In every Assumption
question these answers

Answer 472

have been wrong. And, unless, the author
specifically discusses the prioritization of ideas in the stimulus, these
answers will continue to be wrong because an author can always claim
that the idea under discussion was very important but not necessarily the
most important idea.

Question 473

Words that introduce numerical ideas:

Answer 473

Amount, Quantity, Sum, Total, Count, Tally

Question 474

Words that introduce percentage ideas:

Answer 474

Percent, Proportion, Fraction, Ratio, Incidence, Likelihood, Probability, Segment, Share

Question 475

Use the following general rules for Must Be True questions: Numbers or Proportions

Answer 475

1. If the stimulus contains percentage or proportion information only, avoid
   answers that contain hard numbers.
2. If the stimulus contains only numerical information, avoid answers that
   contain percentage or proportion information.
3. If the stimulus contains both percentage and numerical information, any
   answer choice that contains numbers, percentages, or both may be true.

Question 476

Use the following general rules for Weaken and Strengthen questions:
To weaken or strengthen an argument containing numbers and percentages, look carefully for

Answer 476

Information about the total amount(s)— does the argument make an assumption based on one of the misconceptions discussed earlier?

Question 477

Evaluate the Argument questions ask you to consider the question, statistic, or
piece of information that would best.

Answer 477

help determine the logical validity of the
argument presented in the stimulus. You must select the answer choice that decides whether the argument is good or bad.

Question 478

Evaluate the Argument question stems almost always use the word

Answer 478

“evaluate”
or a synonym such as “judge” or “assess,” but the intent is always identical: the
question stem asks you to identify the piece of information that would be most
helpful in assessing the argument

Question 479

“The answer to which one of the following questions would contribute
most to an evaluation of the argument?”

Answer 479

Evaluate the Argument

Question 480

“Clarification of which one of the following issues would be most
important to an evaluation of the skeptics’ position?”

Answer 480

Evaluate the Argument

Question 481

“Which one of the following would be most important to know in
evaluating the hypothesis in the passage?”

Answer 481

Evaluate the Argument

Question 482

“Which one of the following would it be most relevant to investigate in
evaluating the conclusion of George’s argument?”

Answer 482

Evaluate the Argument

Question 483

“Which one of the following would it be most helpful to know in order
to judge whether what the scientist subsequently learned calls into
question the hypothesis?”

Answer 483

Evaluate the Argument

Question 484

The Variance Test
is a very powerful
tool for

Answer 484

attacking
Evaluate the
Argument
questions.

Question 485

The Variance Test consists of

Answer 485

supplying two polar opposite responses to the
question posed in the answer choice and then analyzing how the varying
responses affect the conclusion in the stimulus. If different responses produce
different effects on the conclusion, then the answer choice is correct, . If different
responses do not produce different effects, then the answer choice is incorrect.

Question 486

Evaluate the
Argument stimuli
always contain

Answer 486

a conclusion.

Question 487

Assumption
questions—use
the

Answer 487

Assumption
Negation
Technique

Question 488

Justify
questions—use

Answer 488

the Justify
Formula.

Question 489

Evaluate the
Argument
questions—use

Answer 489

the Variance Test.

Question 490

The Variance Test should only be applied to

Answer 490

Contenders (to determine which one is correct) or to the answer choice you believe is correct (to confirm your
selection).

Question 491

In Cannot Be True questions your task is to

Answer 491

identify the answer choice that
cannot be true or is most weakened by the information in the argument.

Question 492

“If the statements above are true, which one of the following
CANNOT be true?”

Answer 492

Cannot be true

Question 493

“The argument can most reasonably be interpreted as an
objection to which one of the following claims?”

Answer 493

Cannot be true

Question 494

“The information above, if accurate, can best be used as
evidence against which one of the following hypotheses?”

Answer 494

Cannot be true

Question 494

“The statements above, if true, most seriously undermine which
one of the following assertions?”

Answer 494

Cannot be true

Question 494

The phrase “must be false” is functionally identical to

Answer 494

“cannot be true.”
The use of this wording is just one more way for the test makers to
present you with unusual phrasing.

Question 495

Stating that the answer could be true EXCEPT. This construction is frequently used to

Answer 495

convey the Cannot Be True
concept. If the four incorrect answers could be true, then the one
remaining answer must be the opposite, or cannot be true.

Question 496

“If the statements above are true, then which one of the
following must be false?”

Answer 496

cannot be true/must be false

Question 497

As with most Cannot Be True questions, the stimulus does not

Answer 497

contain an
argument. Instead, a fact pattern is presented and you are tested on your
knowledge of those facts.

Question 498

In Cannot Be True questions, the stimulus will often
supply enough information for you to determine that certain outcomes
must occur (for example, increasing market share while the overall
market size remains constant results in greater sales). The correct answer
then

Answer 498

violates this outcome.

Question 499

Many different scenarios can occur in Cannot Be True questions
featuring conditional statements, except the following:

Answer 499

The sufficient condition occurs, and the necessary condition
does not occur.

Question 500

when a conditional statement is made in a Cannot Be True
question stimulus, you should actively seek answer choices that show that the

Answer 500

The sufficient condition occurs, and the necessary condition
does not occur.

Question 501

Incorrect answers often play upon the possibility that the necessary condition occurs but the

Answer 501

sufficient condition does not occur. Those
scenarios could occur and are thus incorrect.

Question 502

If the statements above are true, each of the following
could also be true EXCEPT:

Answer 502

must be false/cannot be true

Question 503

If the statements above are true, which one of the
following CANNOT be true?

Answer 503

must be false

Question 504

If all the statements above are true, then which one of
the following must be false?

Answer 504

must be false

Question 505

Point at Issue stimuli are comprised of

Answer 505

two speakers
who disagree about an issue that is generally ethical or decision-oriented in
nature, not factual. The question stem directs you to choose the answer that
describes the point of disagreement between the two speakers, or to identify a
statement that the two speakers would disagree is true.

Question 506

“Which one of the following most accurately expresses the point at issue
between Tom and Mary?”

Answer 506

Point at issue

Question 506

“Which one of the following most accurately represents what is at issue
between Jorge and Ruth?”

Answer 506

Point at issue

Question 507

“The dialogue above lends the most support to the claim that Sherrie
and Fran disagree with each other about which one of the following
statements?”

Answer 507

Point at issue

Question 508

“On the basis of their statement, Logan and Mendez are committed to
disagreeing over whether”

Answer 508

Point at issue

Question 509

Incorrect Answers in Point at Issue Questions

Answer 509

1. Ethical versus Factual Situations
2. Dual Agreement or Dual Disagreement
3. The View of One Speaker is Unknown

Question 510

In Point at Issue Questions When a stimulus addresses an issue that is ethical in nature, answer choices that are factual in nature

Answer 510

cannot be true.

Question 511

In Point at Issue Questions often, incorrect answer choices will supply statements that both

Answer 511

speakers will agree with, or that both speakers will disagree with. These
answer choices are typically quite attractive because they raise issues
that are addressed in the stimulus and therefore they require some
analysis

Question 512

In Point at Issue Questions Another crafty trick used by the test makers is to create an answer where
the view of

Answer 512

only one of the speakers is known. In these instances the
view of the speaker is unknown because the speaker’s comments did not
address the issue in the answer choice. Since the correct answer must
contain a point of disagreement, these “one unknown” answers are
always incorrect since there is no way to determine that the other
speaker disagrees

Question 513

Point at Issue
questions—use

Answer 513

the Agree/
Disagree Test.

Question 514

The Agree/Disagree Test

Answer 514

The correct answer must produce responses where one speaker would say “I agree, the statement is correct” and the other speaker would say,
“I disagree, the statement is incorrect.” If those two responses are not produced, then the answer is incorrect.

Question 515

The Agree/Disagree Test crystallizes the essence of Point at Issue questions by
forcing you to

Answer 515

concretely identify the elements that determine the correct
answer.

Question 516

On the basis of their statements, Shanna and Jorge
are committed to disagreeing about the truth of
which one of the following statements?

Answer 516

Point at issue

Question 517

Which one of the following is a point at issue
between the nutritionist and the consumer advocate?

Answer 517

Point at issue

Question 518

Hazel and Max disagree over whether

Answer 518

Point at issue

Question 519

Which one of the following is an issue about which
the two councilpersons disagree?

Answer 519

Point at issue

Question 520

Franklin’s and Tomeka’s statements provide the most
support for holding that they disagree about the truth
of which one of the following?

Answer 520

point at issue

Question 521

Lea’s and Susan’s remarks provide the most support
for holding that they disagree about whether

Answer 521

point at issue

Question 522

The word
“proposition” or
“precept” can be
used in place of

Answer 522

“principle.”

Question 523

“Which one of the following judgments most closely conforms to the
principle above?” (Must-PR)

Answer 523

Must-Principle

Question 524

“Which one of the following judgments best illustrates the principle illustrated by the argument above?” (Must-PR)

Answer 524

Must-Principle

Question 525

“The principle above, if established, would justify which one of the
following judgments?” (Must-PR)

Answer 525

Must-Principle

Question 526

“Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the reasoning above?” (Strengthen-PR)

Answer 526

Strengthen-Principle

Question 527

“The information above most closely conforms to which one of the following principles?” (Strengthen-PR)

Answer 527

Strengthen-Principle

Question 528

“Which one of the following most accurately expresses the principle underlying the argumentation above?” (Justify-PR)

Answer 528

Justify-Principle

Question 529

“Each of the following principles is logically consistent with the
columnist’s conclusion EXCEPT:” (Cannot-PR)

Answer 529

Cannot-Principle

Question 530

Principle questions (PR) are not a separate question type but are instead an

Answer 530

“overlay” that appears in a variety of question types.

Question 531

A principle is a broad rule that specifies

Answer 531

what actions or judgments are correct in certain situations.

Question 532

Since a principle is by definition a broad rule (usually conditional in nature), the
presence of the Principle indicator serves to broaden the scope of the question.
The question becomes more

Answer 532

abstract, and you must analyze the problem to
identify the underlying relationships.

Question 533

Because
principles must
retain broad
applicability and
must typically
meet a condition
to apply, they are
often

Answer 533

conditional
statements.
However, there
are exceptions,
such as with
causal principles.

Question 534

Must Be True Principle Questions

Answer 534

In these questions you must use the principle presented in the stimulus
and then apply it to the situation in each answer choice (one principle
applied to five situations). Although these are Must Be True questions,
the presence of the principle designation broadens the question, and the
answer choice can address a scenario not specifically included in the
stimulus; your job is to find the answer that follows from the application
of the principle.

Question 535

Strengthen/Justify Principle Questions

Answer 535

In these questions each answer choice contains a principle that acts as
an additional, broad premise that supports or proves the conclusion.

Question 536

A principle is a broad rule that specifies what

Answer 536

actions or judgments are correct in
certain situations. The degree of generality of principles can vary considerably,
and some are much narrower than others.