Long-term Memory: Systems and Processes (Pt2)

Question 1

What is believed about episodic memories when the hippocampus is not involved in storage or retrieval?

Answer 1

episodic memories become semanticized

Question 2

What evidence supports the processing view of memory?

Answer 2

• individuals with developmental amnesia
• Jon suffered hippocampal damage (age 4) and got anterograde amnesia for episodic memory. Semantic memory, language development, school performance, and IQ were normal

Question 3

What does the Levels of Processing theory propose?

Answer 3

the depth of processing affects how well information is remembered; deeper processing leads to better retention

Question 4

What is the definition of the Levels of Processing theory?

Answer 4

the observation that how we encode information affects the likelihood of retrieval, rather than where it is stored or how long it is stored

Question 5

What are the two types of rehearsal in memory processes?

Answer 5

1. Maintenance Rehearsal: Keeps information active in short-term memory through repetition.
2. Elaborative Rehearsal: Links new information to existing knowledge in long-term memory (meaning-based rehearsal).

Question 6

What are the three types of questions used in Craik and Tulving’s (1972) experiments?

Answer 6

1. Font (e.g., Are the words written in the same font?)
2. Rhyming (e.g., Does this word rhyme with HOUSE?)
3. Similar meaning (e.g., Do the words happy and glad have a similar meaning?)

Question 7

Which type of processing results in better memory recall according to Craik and Tulving?

Answer 7

Deep

Question 8

In Craik and Tulving’s (1972) experiment, which question had the higher percentage of correct recall of words?

Answer 8

when they were asked if the two words had a similar meaning

Question 9

What are some limitations of the Levels of Processing theory?

Answer 9

1) Shallow processing can sometimes lead to better recall than deep processing due to context effects.
2) The theory does not adequately explain why some information is available but not accessible.
3) It may be overly simplistic and circular in its definitions (more of a framework, not a theory as it doesn’t predict anything).

Question 10

How does the distinctiveness relate to memory?

Answer 10

also known as the isolation effect or von Restorff effect
- Items that stand out or are distinct from others (e.g., unique or unusual information) are more likely to be remembered

Question 11

What is the role of elaboration in memory encoding?

Answer 11

creating meaningful links to new information, which enhances the depth of processing and aids in memory retention

Question 12

What is forgetting things in LTM often caused by?

Answer 12

retrieval failure, information is available but not accessible

Question 13

How does retrieval failure manifest?

Answer 13

• feeling of knowing (familiarity)
• tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
• cued vs uncued recall (eg. Tulving and Pearlstone)

Question 14

What was the primary focus of Tulving and Pearlstone’s 1966 experiment?

Answer 14

To compare memory performance in free recall versus category-cued recall conditions.

Question 15

What were the results of Tulving and Pearlstone’s experiment regarding free recall and category-cued recall?

Answer 15

Participants remembered significantly more words when given category cues (75%) compared to free recall without cues (40%)

Question 16

How does the Encoding Specificity Principle challenge the levels of processing theory?

Answer 16

It suggests that memory retrieval can be influenced more by the match between encoding and retrieval contexts than by the depth of initial processing

Question 17

What did Tulving and Thomson find about recall versus recognition in their experiments?

Answer 17

Participants recalled more words than they recognized because the recall task was presented in the same way the words were encoded.

Question 18

What were the results of Tulving and Thomson’s experiment?

Answer 18

Recognition in phase 3 = 24%
Recall in phase 4 = 63%

Question 19

What did Tulving and Thomson conclude from their findings?

Answer 19

the encoding specificity principle is an important factor in memory retrieval

Question 20

What is the Encoding Specificity Theory?

Answer 20

memory retrieval is more effective when the context at encoding matches the context at retrieval

Question 21

What is the “transfer-appropriate processing” concept?

Answer 21

memory performance is influenced by matching the cognitive process at encoding and at retrieval (encoding information verbally and retrieving it verbally)

Question 22

What is context-dependent learning?

Answer 22

improved memory performance when the environment during encoding matches the environment during retrieval (has to do with the external environment, same room for retrieval and encoding)

Question 23

What is state-dependent learning?

Answer 23

improved memory performance when an individual’s internal state (e.g., mood, intoxication) at encoding matches their state at retrieval. (any internal state)

Question 24

What was the main focus of the scuba divers’ study?

Answer 24

focused on context-dependent memory, examining how the environment (underwater vs. on land) affects the recall of learned information

Question 25

How were the subjects tested in the scuba divers’ study?

Answer 25

Subjects studied a list of words either underwater or on land and were then tested on their recall either in the same environment (congruent) or in the opposite environment (incongruent).

Question 26

What were the findings regarding memory performance based on the scuba diver study and test conditions?

Answer 26

Memory performance was significantly better when the study and test conditions matched (congruent) compared to when they were mismatched (incongruent)

Question 27

What is an example of state-dependent learning?

Answer 27

Sober at encoding: sober at retrieval is better than intoxicated at retrieval
Intoxicated at encoding: retrieval is better at intoxicated state than sober state
Although retrieval is always better when encoding is sober

Question 28

What are some ways to improve LTM?

Answer 28

• engage in deep processing (add meaning to meaningless lists)
• organize (eg. categories or hierarchies)
• make it personally relevant
• generate the information yourself
• use imagery
• use interactive images

Question 29

How does generating information yourself improve LTM?

Answer 29

Slameka and Graf
- 2 groups: one just read King-Crown, other group generated the word King-Cr____
- the group that generated the word had a higher recall rate

Question 30

How does organizing help improve LTM?

Answer 30

Bower
- 2 groups presented with 72 item shopping list
- 1 group had the list presented in a meaningful hierarchy: ended up remembering 100% after 4 trials
- group 2 had the list presented in a random hierarchy, and could only remember 50% of the items

Question 31

How does using imagery help improve LTM?

Answer 31

• now have 2 codes
• 1 verbal and 1 visual code, gives a better chance of remembering

Question 32

What do the levels of processing theory and encoding specificity help explain?

Answer 32

why distributed practice leads to better memory than massed practice

Question 33

Why does distributed practice lead to better memory than mass practice?

Answer 33

• more likely to engage in elaborate coding due to alternative strategy use (create new ways to elaborate on the info)
• increased number of cues available to use at recall