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PSY270 > Knowledge Categories And Concepts > Flashcards

Knowledge Categories And Concepts Flashcards

1
Q

How is knowledge organized?

A

divided into categories

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2
Q

What is a category?

A

a group of objects that belong together and have something in common (eg. Dog)

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3
Q

What is an exemplar?

A

an item in a category (eg. German Shepard)

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4
Q

What do categories allow us to predict?

A

what is likely in new situations because they treat all exemplars as similar

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5
Q

What is a concept?

A

a mental representation of the items

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6
Q

What is the classical view of categorization?

A

categories are defined by a set of necessary and sufficient features that an item must possess

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7
Q

What are the necessary features in the context of categorization?

A

an item must have all defining features to be included in the category

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8
Q

What is a defining feature?

A

a characteristic of an exemplar that is both necessary and sufficient for category membership

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9
Q

What are sufficient features in categorization?

A

any other attributes that are not required for category membership

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9
Q

Give an example of necessary and sufficient features for the category “grandmother.”

A
  • Necessary feature: being a mother of a parent
    Sufficient features: being senior or spoiling grandchildren (not required)
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10
Q

How do we classify new items based on the classical view of categorization?

A

we classify them according to whether or not they satisfy the list of necessary feature

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11
Q

What is a major problem with the classical view of categorization?

A
  • it is often difficult or impossible to identify defining features for many real-world categories
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12
Q

What is the concept of typicality effects?

A

the observation that some category members are considered “better” examples of a category than others
- contradicts the classical view that categorization

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13
Q

What are some key criticisms of the classical view regarding its application to cognitive tasks?

A
  • we respond to typical exemplars faster than atypical ones
  • we generate typical exemplars more frequently than atypical ones
  • typical items are more affected by priming
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14
Q

Give an example of a typicality effect in categorization.

A

people are more likely to say “apple” or “banana” (typical fruits) before saying “coconut” or “guava” (atypical fruits)

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15
Q

How do typical and atypical exemplars differ in terms of semantic priming?

A

Responses to typical members of a category (e.g., “apple”) are faster after being primed with related typical items than responses to atypical members (e.g., “boysenberry”).

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16
Q

What is the prototype theory of categorization?

A

we categorize items by comparing them to an abstract representation (prototype) that includes the most characteristic features of a category

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17
Q

What are characteristic features in the context of prototype theory?

A

traits that are commonly found among members of a category but are not strictly necessary for category membership

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18
Q

How does prototype theory differ from the classical view of categorization?

A

allows for fuzzy boundaries and considers the most typical features of a category

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19
Q

What is a prototype?

A

an abstract, idealized representation of a category that embodies the most common features of its members

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20
Q

How does prototype theory explain typicality effects?

A

by suggesting that items resembling the prototype more closely are judged as more typical category members

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21
Q

What is the significance of family resemblance in prototype theory?

A

all category members share at least one feature with another family member of the category

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22
Q

How does prototype theory relate to cognitive efficiency?

A

using a prototype for categorization is cognitively efficient because it simplifies decision-making by relying on the most characteristic features

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23
Q

What is exemplar theory?

A

we categorize items by storing specific examples (exemplars) of items we have encountered in the past

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24
Q

How does categorization occur according to exemplar theory?

A

comparing new items to the stored exemplars in memory

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25
Q

What does exemplar theory explain about typicality effects?

A

explains that typical items are similar to many other category members, making them easier and faster to retrieve from memory, while atypical items are harder to identify

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26
Q

What is a key difference between exemplar theory and prototype theory?

A

exemplar theory stores specific instances of items, while prototype theory relies on an abstract representation of the average features of a category

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27
Q

Can exemplar theory explain why some items are categorized as typical members of a category?

A

Yes, because typical members share many features with other members of the category, making them more easily retrievable

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28
Q

What are some criticisms of exemplar theory?

A

may be impractical to store every instance of an item encountered

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29
Q

What is a significant problem with similarity-based theories regarding typicality ratings?

A

struggle to explain why people provide consistent typicality ratings for categories that have well-defined membership rules

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30
Q

What is the issue with determining which features to compare in similarity-based theories?

A

do not specify how individuals decide which features are important for comparison

31
Q

What role do knowledge and beliefs play in categorization?

A

help form complex implicit ideas about categories and concepts

32
Q

What does psychological essentialism refer to in the context of categorization?

A

categories have an inherent essence that defines membership

33
Q

How do implicit ideas about categories influence our judgments?

A

guide us in judging which features are more important for category membership

34
Q

What is the relationship between essentialism and stereotypes?

A

it suggests that certain traits are inherent to specific groups

35
Q

How does the concept of “natural categories” relate to essentialism?

A

often viewed through the lens of essentialism

36
Q

What is the basic level of categorization?

A
  • moderately specific
  • not too broad or too narrow
  • informative and distinct
  • dog
37
Q

What is a superordinate category?

A
  • one level above basic
  • a broad category
  • less informative and more distinct
  • mammals
38
Q

What is a subordinate category?

A
  • one level below basic
  • includes specific instances of a basic-level category
  • more informative and less distinct
  • poodle
39
Q

How can the levels of categorization change based on expertise?

A

can influence which level is considered basic

40
Q

What is the fundamental idea behind all network models in semantic memory?

A

nodes contain information and are connected to each other by directional pathways

41
Q

How are nodes activated in semantic network models?

A

via spreading activation, when the concept is present in the environment

42
Q

Describe the hierarchical organization of nodes in semantic network models.

A
  • Nodes are organized hierarchically
  • superordinate categories occupying the uppermost level
  • subordinate categories occupying lower levels
43
Q

What do nodes in a semantic network model point to?

A

point to properties of concepts as well as to other nodes

44
Q

How is a concept stored in a semantic network model?

A

stored in a node that has pointers to the properties associated with that concept

45
Q

What is the significance of cognitive economy in semantic network models?

A

refers to the efficient storage of information by only storing properties once at the highest level in the hierarchy

46
Q

Explain the concept of property inheritance in semantic networks.

A

subordinate categories inherit properties from higher-level superordinate categories, reducing redundancy in storage

47
Q

What is the effect of distance between nodes in a hierarchical semantic network?

A

Nodes that are further away from each other in the hierarchy take longer to activate

48
Q

What empirical evidence supports the hierarchical model of semantic networks?

A

Collins and Quillian’s sentence verification task showed that participants responded fastest to sentences requiring the fewest levels of search in the hierarchy

49
Q

What limitation of the hierarchical model led to the development of the spreading activation model by Collins and Quillian?

A

failed to account for typicality effects, where typical exemplars are recognized faster than atypical ones

50
Q

What is Collins and Loftus’ semantic relatedness model?

A

organizes concepts based on the strength of their semantic relationships rather than a strict hierarchy

51
Q

How does the distance between nodes in Collins and Loftus’ model affect activation?

A

farther apart two nodes are, the longer it takes for activation to spread between them

52
Q

What is the significance of semantic priming in Collins and Loftus’ model?

A

demonstrates that activation spreads quickly between closely related concepts

53
Q

How does Collins and Loftus’ model account for typicality effects?

A

Typical exemplars are more closely related to each other, resulting in shorter pathways and faster activation

54
Q

What are Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)?

A
  • computing systems modeled after how neurons in the brain are connected
  • consisting of input, output, and hidden layers connected by weighted connections
55
Q

How do connectionist models differ from semantic network models?

A
  • do not store knowledge explicitly in nodes
  • knowledge is represented in the distribution of weights
56
Q

What are the three types of units in ANNs?

A

inactive, excitatory, or inhibitory

57
Q

What role do weights play in ANNs?

A

determine how input patterns are processed and which specific output will be produced from the inputs

58
Q

How do ANNs learn?

A

through a process called backpropagation, where the network adjusts weights based on the feedback from its outputs compared to the expected results

59
Q

What is the significance of the hidden layers in ANNs?

A

process inputs and contribute to the network’s ability to learn complex patterns

60
Q

What is embodied cognition?

A
  • cognitive processes are deeply rooted in the body’s interactions with the world
  • knowledge is influenced by our sensory and motor experiences
61
Q

What are the key distinctions between representational and embodied cognition?

A

representational: symbolic, amodal, decontextualized, stable
embodied: simulation, modality-specific, situated, dynamic

62
Q

What does the term “modality-specific” refer to in the context of embodied cognition?

A

knowledge is represented in the brain through the same neural pathways used for sensory and motor experiences

63
Q

What is the significance of the term “situated” in embodied cognition?

A

knowledge retrieval and understanding depend on the specific context and environment in which a person finds themselves

64
Q

What does the term “simulation” refer to in the context of embodied cognition?

A

cognitive processes involve the reactivation of sensory and motor experiences that occur during actual interactions with the environment

65
Q

How does the concept of “dynamic” relate to embodied cognition?

A

cognition is not static; it is continuously shaped and influenced by real-time interactions with the environment

66
Q

How does context affect knowledge retrieval according to embodied cognition?

A

The context we are in can facilitate or hinder our ability to access certain pieces of knowledge

67
Q

What was the main focus of Zwaan, Stanfield, and Yaxley (2002) in their experiment?

A

investigated how knowledge access is context-dependent by examining participants’ reaction times to pictures of objects after reading sentences about those objects

68
Q

What were the two sentences used in Zwaan, Stanfield, and Yaxley’s experiment regarding the egg?

A
  1. “The chef saw the egg in the refrigerator.”
  2. “The chef saw the egg in the pan.”
69
Q

In the experiment by Zwaan, Stanfield, and Yaxley (2002), what types of pictures were participants shown after reading the sentences?

A

whole eggs or broken eggs

70
Q

What task were participants asked to perform after viewing the pictures in Zwaan, Stanfield, and Yaxley’s study?

A

asked to press one button if the picture had been mentioned in the sentence and another button if it had not

71
Q

What did Zwaan, Stanfield, and Yaxley (2002) find regarding reaction times when the picture matched the context of the sentence?

A

Participants had faster reaction times when the picture matched the shape implied by the sentence (e.g., a whole egg for the refrigerator sentence).

72
Q

How do the findings of Zwaan, Stanfield, and Yaxley (2002) challenge traditional symbolic cognitive explanations of semantic knowledge?

A

knowledge is not stored as abstract symbols but is context-dependent

73
Q

According to Zwaan, Stanfield, and Yaxley (2002), how does context influence our understanding of objects like eggs?

A

Knowledge about objects, such as eggs, is influenced by the context in which they are typically found

74
Q

What implications do the results of Zwaan, Stanfield, and Yaxley’s (2002) study have for cognitive psychology?

A

that cognitive processes, such as memory retrieval and semantic knowledge, are not fixed but are flexible and influenced by context

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