Long-term Memory Storage and Retrieval Processes

Question 1

Why is our interpretation of the environment (perception) both less and more than the information we actually receive from the environment (sensation)?

Answer 1

Because we can’t attend to all the information we receive, and sensation alone provides insufficient information for adequate interpretations of ongoing events.

Question 2

The ability to understand the following sentences heard in a noisy place indicates that our ___ is more than the ___: I -an’t -ear a -ing in this -lace! This is because we are mentally ___ in the gaps or the missing information.

Answer 2

perception; sensation; filling.

Question 3

The reason why with saccades (jump in focus) occurring only four or five times a second, we are still able to see smooth-flowing motions instead of jerky motions, is because we are mentally “___ in” that occurs as our minds interpret visual information.

Answer 3

filling.

Question 4

Sensory input that can be interpreted in at least two ways is called ______.

Answer 4

Ambiguous stimulus. Remember the picture which could be seen as either the face of a young lady or an old lady.

Question 5

In “The War of the Ghosts” study conducted by Frederic Bartlett in 1932, he identified that students’ recollections were different from the original story in several ways. Different way 1: the words itself were changed, in other words, the recall wasn’t ___.

Answer 5

verbatim.

Question 6

“The War of the Ghosts” study different way 2: the focus was on ___ events that contributed to the plot line.

Answer 6

significant.

Question 7

“The War of the Ghosts” study different way 3: parts of the story were ___, and additional information was inserted to make the story more logical and ___ with English culture.

Answer 7

distorted; consistent.

Question 8

“The War of the Ghosts” study different way 3: there was a tendency to ___ as well as describe events.

Answer 8

explain.

Question 9

What can we learn about the long-term memory from “The War of the Ghosts” study?

Answer 9

Long-term memory is selective (focusing on events that are important to the plotline), constructive (recall wasn’t verbatim, inserting information to make the story consistent with English culture), distortive, and human beings tend to make meaning in what they see and hear.

Question 10

___, verbally repeating something over and over again, and ___, simply repeating new material again and again, are not effective learning strategies.

Answer 10

Rehearsal; rote learning.

Question 11

What is meaningful learning?

Answer 11

It is a process through which people relate new information to prior knowledge to find meaning in the information.

Question 12

Why does meaningful learning facilitate long-term memory?

Answer 12

1. When relating new information to prior knowledge, the new information is primed, its retrieval will be facilitated; 2. relating new information to prior knowledge decreases the cognitive load required to process the information, thus facilitate its storage; 3. when storing pictorial information, it is much easier to remember the meaning/verbal description of the picture with the drawing in details than only remember the drawing in details(Bird’s-eye view of a Cowboy riding a Bicycle).

Question 13

___ involves using prior knowledge to ___ on new information and stored the ___ version.

Answer 13

Elaboration; embellish; embellished.

Question 14

Why does elaboration facilitate long-term memory?

Answer 14

1. Elaborated information is less likely to be confused with other similar information in long-term memory; 2. elaboration provides additional means (other than the new information itself) through which a piece of information can be retrieved; 3. elaboration may help provide a gist of the information if the information itself can’t be accurately recalled.

Question 15

When the new information has ___ organization, it will be stored more effectively and more completely.

Answer 15

internal.

Question 16

In a classic experiment conducted by Bower, Clark, Lesgold, and Winzenz in 1969, after one study trial, college students who had 112 words arranged in a way like concept map can remember three times as many words as did students who had the same words arranged randomly, and after four study trials, they remembered 112 words, whereas those in the random group remembered 70 on average. This experiment demonstrates just how dramatic the effects of ______ can be.

Answer 16

internal organization.

Question 17

______ is a mental “picture” that captures how something actually looked or might look, and it relies on some of the same specific processes and brain regions that enable visual perception.

Answer 17

Visual imagery.

Question 18

Verbally ___ a sequence of steps in a motor skill enhances people’s ability to perform the skill.

Answer 18

rehearsing.

Question 19

Illustrations or live demonstrations of a procedure, which presumably foster ______, are also helpful.

Answer 19

visual imagery.

Question 20

______ provides a “place” for new information to “interact” with previously stored information, through such interactions learners can understand their relationships and make connections to facilitate the storage of new information.

Answer 20

Working memory.

Question 21

Learners who have much ______ stored in long-term memory have more ideas to which they can relate their new experiences and so can more easily engage in processes such as meaningful learning and elaboration.

Answer 21

prior knowledge.

Question 22

Connections between new information and old information can be made only when they are both in ______.

Answer 22

working memory.

Question 23

In a study conducted by Ormrod, Wagner, & McCallin in 1988, college students majoring in geography, sociology, and education were asked to remember two maps-a city map with clear logic and a country map without logic, students majoring in geography recalled more details only about the city map than students majoring in other disciplines. This study manifests the importance of ______ for encoding and storing new information.

Answer 23

prior knowledge.

Question 24

______ are erroneous information stored in long-term memory.

Answer 24

Prior misconceptions.

Question 25

People expect and so “see” desirable behaviors from someone they like or admire is a phenomenon called ___ effect.

Answer 25

halo.

Question 26

People expect and so “see” inappropriate behaviors from someone they dislike is a phenomenon called ___ effect.

Answer 26

horns.

Question 27

___ can enable people to perceive and learn something more quickly because relevant proportions of long-term memory have already been activated.

Answer 27

Expectations

Question 28

___ is talking or writing about an experience that either has previously happened or is currently happening.

Answer 28

Verbalization.

Question 29

Verbalization can also take the form of ______, in which learners talk to themselves in order to understand difficult subject matters. Such activities can facilitate long-term memory because they encourage learners to elaborate on new information and so better understand and remember it.

Answer 29

self-explanation.

Question 30

___ means engaging in overt psychomotor behavior-actually doing something-that in some way reflects what’s being learned.

Answer 30

Enactment.

Question 31

Physical enactment is especially helpful when people are learning ___ knowledge.

Answer 31

procedural.

Question 32

In the information processing model, ___ is a source of information that can help learners improve their performance.

Answer 32

feedback.

Question 33

______ is a cognitive phenomenon in which distributed practice leads to better long-term retention than massed practice.

Answer 33

Spacing.

Question 34

Why do repetition and review facilitate long-term retention?

Answer 34

1. Repetition and review provide people with more time to process new information, thus allowing them to elaborate information to understand it more thoroughly; 2. by reviewing the same information repeatedly, especially in different contexts, it forms more and stronger associations with other things in long-term memory; 3. continued practice promote automaticity.

Question 35

___ processing requires much of a person’s attention and is likely to use most or all of the person’s working memory capacity.

Answer 35

Controlled.

Question 36

___ processing, or ___, occurs with little or no conscious attention or effort and requires little working memory capacity.

Answer 36

Automatic; automaticity.

Question 37

___ processes become increasingly ___ through repetition and practice.

Answer 37

Controlled; automatic.

Question 38

What are two disadvantages of automaticity?

Answer 38

Because it enables people to act with little or without thinking, sometimes people forget whether they’ve done something; secondly, it prohibits people to use less automatic ideas or procedures which would be more useful.

Question 39

What is spreading activation?

Answer 39

It is a process of activation flowing through connections within the network of stored information.

Question 40

______ is the principle that the retrieval of information tends to be easier when learners engage in thought processes similar to those they previously used when storing the information.

Answer 40

Encoding specificity.

Question 41

Encoding specificity is both ___ dependent and state and mood dependent. State dependency effects disappear under the ___ test.

Answer 41

context; recognition.

Question 42

______ is a hint that may trigger the activation of certain parts of long-term memory. For example, a certain song reminds one of an old boyfriend.

Answer 42

Retrieval cue.

Question 43

In a study conducted by J. Brown in 1968, an experiment group of college students was given a list of 25 US states to read, while a control group had no such list. Both groups were then asked to free recall as many of the 50 states as they could. Compared with the control group, the experimental group remembered more of the states they’d previously read but fewer of the states they hadn’t read. What does this finding suggest?

Answer 43

It suggests that occasionally retrieval cues set boundaries on the areas of long-term memory we search, in other words, the retrieval cues hinder recall when they direct a learner’s search t parts of long-term memory other than those that hold desired information.

Question 44

Why does long-term memory retrieval involve construction processes?

Answer 44

Because people can often retrieve parts of what they’ve previously stored, and they may fill in the gaps based on what’s logical or consistent with their existing knowledge and beliefs.

Question 45

______ is a phenomenon in which people’s memory for an event may become distorted when they subsequently receive inaccurate information about the event.

Answer 45

Misinformation effect.

Question 46

___ memories are memories that have little or no basis in fact, and they are common when certain stimuli or events might reasonably or logically have been experienced.

Answer 46

False.

Question 47

In a study conducted by Pezdek, Finger, and Hodge in 1997, high school students were asked whether certain things happened when they were 8 years old. Catholic children were more likely to remember the fabricated Catholic ritual event and Jewish children were more likely to remember the fabricated Jewish ritual event. What does this suggest?

Answer 47

Plausibility increases false recall of nonexperienced events.

Question 48

What we remember is more likely to be our prior ___ rather than what actually happened, especially when we verbally describe the event and perhaps ___ on it in some way.

Answer 48

recollections; embellish.

Question 49

___ is a process in which learned information gradually fades away unless it is often used.

Answer 49

Decay.

Question 50

Typically, details of an event fade more quickly than the gist of that event. One exception to this general rule is when certain details are unexpected, personally significant, or in some other way quite ___.

Answer 50

distinctive.

Question 51

The ___ effect is a phenomenon in which multiple associations with a concept can sometimes slow down retrieval time for specific information connected with the concept.

Answer 51

fan.

Question 52

______ forgetting is a phenomenon in which retrieve one memory inhibits retrieval of related memories. Remember the capital of Turkey as Ankara instead of Istanbul.

Answer 52

Retrieval-induced.

Question 53

___ is a mechanism through which people tend either not to remember a painful/emotionally distressing experience or remember only isolated fragments.

Answer 53

Repression.

Question 54

Although a ___ state may increase people’s confidence and willingness to talk about past events, it doesn’t necessarily improve their memory for what transpired.

Answer 54

hypnotic.

Question 55

An effective strategy to solve the problem of ______, that is forgetting to do something that needs to be fone at a future time, is to create an _________, a physical reminder external to the memory system.

Answer 55

prospective memory; external retrieval cue.

Question 56

People engage in ______ when they retrieve information from long-term memory to determine whether they’re remembering something accurately or inaccurately. For instance, people tend to believe a recollection as accurate if it is plausible.

Answer 56

self-monitoring.

Question 57

When a learner doesn’t pay attention to a piece of information, it never enters ___ memory.

Answer 57

working.

Question 58

Instruction is more effective when it activates and builds on students’ prior___.

Answer 58

knowledge.

Question 59

When students have no prior knowledge, teachers might provide ___ experiences on which subsequent instruction can build on; or provide ___ that relate classroom subject matter to familiar concepts and situations.

Answer 59

actual; analogies.

Question 60

Instruction is more effective when it helps students ___ new material, such as provide an overview of upcoming ideas.

Answer 60

organize.

Question 61

A ______ is a diagram of a series of concepts and the ___ among them.

Answer 61

concept map; interrelationships.

Question 62

Instruction is more effective when it encourages students to ______ what they’re learning through class discussion, small-group problem-solving task, and so on.

Answer 62

elaborate on.

Question 63

What are lower-level questions and higher-level questions?

Answer 63

The former asks students to retrieve something as exactly as stored in memory, whereas the latter encourages students to elaborate on what they have learned and enhance their understanding.

Question 64

___ aids enhance long-term memory storage, for example, presenting information through educational videos, pictures, maps … can often help to store verbal information, provided the combination doesn’t impose too much of a ______ on students as they’re learning new material.

Answer 64

Visual; cognitive load.

Question 65

When a procedural skill is almost entirely a behavioral one, with little or no cognitive involvement, then picture illustrations, live ___, verbal rehearsal of the steps, and practice with immediate ___ can all be quite effective. ___ (11 letters starting with v) the learner in action, with subsequent feedback regarding the strength and weakness of the performance could also be helpful.

Answer 65

demonstrations; feedback;Videotaping.

Question 66

When a procedural skill involves considerable mental work, such as solving maths or physics problems, instruction about procedures must go hand in hand with ______ that helps learners understand why the procedures make sense.

Answer 66

declarative.

Question 67

Information that must be retrieved within a particular context should ideally be ___ in that context. For example, students are more likely to retrieve mathematical ideas relevant to engineering problems if maths teachers incorporate engineering problems in instruction.

Answer 67

stored.

Question 68

What are the six cognitive processes in A two-dimensional revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy proposed by L.W. Anderson et al., in 2001?

Answer 68

Remember; understand; apply; analyze; evaluate; create.

Question 69

What are the four types of knowledge in A two-dimensional revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy proposed by L.W. Anderson et al., in 2001?

Answer 69

Factual knowledge(e.g., facts, terminology); conceptual knowledge(e.g., general principles, schemas, models); procedural knowledge (e.g., step-by-step knowledge about constructing a confidence interval, employing scientific research methods); metacognition knowledge (knowing about effective learning strategies, and being aware of one’s own cognitive processes).

Question 70

Effective instruction provides opportunities for ___ and ___ of previously learned knowledge and skills.

Answer 70

review; practice.

Question 71

___ of assessment affect how students learn, for example, students are more likely to involve in ___ learning if they think that an assessment will require verbatim recall.

Answer 71

Types; rote.

Question 72

Providing ___ helps students identify their strengths and weakness in learning so that their effective learning can be facilitated by focusing their cognitive load on areas of weakness.

Answer 72

feedback.