Logical Reasoning Flashcards
LR Method
- Start with Question Stem - identify type
- Untangle the stimulus
- Predict the Correct Answer
- Evaluate the Answer Choices
If have a strong prediction ___
pick it and quit it
“most calls into question”
Weaken Question Stem
“vulnerable to criticism”
Flaw Question Stem
Wrong answer type: Outside the scope
A choice containing a statement that is too broad, too narrow, or beyond the purview of the stimulus
Wrong answer type: Irrelevant comparison
A choice that compares two items or attributes in a way not germane to the author’s argument or statements.
Wrong answer type: Extreme
A choice containing language too emphatic to be supported by the stimulus. Extreme choices are often characterized by words like: All, never, every or none
Wrong answer type: Distortion
A choice that mentions details from the stimulus but mangles or misstates the relationship between them given or implied by the author
Wrong answer type: 180
A choice that directly contradicts what the correct answer must say
Wrong answer type: Faulty use of detail
A choice that accurately states something from the stimulus but in a manner that answers the question incorrectly.
Conclusions are always statements that call out for a reason ___
They always elicit the question, why?
Conclusion, what is the __
Author’s point?
Conclusion Keywords
Hence, thus, consequently, as a result, so, it follows that
Evidence Keywords
Because, after all, for, since, research has shown, consider the data
VIPCAR
Value Judgement If/Then Prediction Comparison Assertion of Fact Recommendation
Value Judgement
An evaluative statement “action x is unethical” or “Y’s recital was poorly sung”
If/Then
A conditional statement. A conditional prediction, recommendation or assertion.
Prediction
X will or will not happen in the future
Comparison
X is taller / shorter / less common / more common than Y
Assertion of Fact
X is true
Recommendation
We should or should not do X
Main point question calls for ___
The author’s final conclusion
Premise =
Evidence
Role of a statement question rewards __
your ability to simply identify the various pieces of an argument - such as evidence, conclusion, opponent’s arguments or background information
“figures in the argument”
Role of a statement stem
Conclusion synonymous with
view, claim, argument
Point at Issue question
Dialogue in the stimulus. Speakers will make arguments and they will disagree about one particular aspect of their arguments.
Point at issue question strategy
Decision tree - did author A have an opinion about this “yes/no” did author B have an opinion about this “yes/no” - what was that opinion.
Method of Argument
Argument by Analogy
Author draws parallels between two unrelated (but purportedly similar) situations
Method of Argument
Use of Examples
Author cites specific cases to justify a generalization
Method of Argument
How the author tries to convince the reader of their conclusion
Method of Argument
Use of Counterexamples
Author seeks to discredit an opponent’s argument by citing a specific case in which an opponents conclusion appears to be invalid
Method of Argument
Appeal to Authority
Author cites an expert or other authority figure as support for her conclusion
Method of Argument
Eliminating Alternatives
Author list alternatives and discredits all but one
Method of Argument
Ad Hominem
Author attacks not her opponent’s argument but rather her opponent’s personal credibility.
Method of Argument
Means/Requirement
Author argues that something is needed to achieve a desired result
“the argument in the passage proceeds by”
“which accurately describes the argumentative strategy deployed”
Method of Argument questions stems
Common conclusion types in Main Point questions__
Rebuttal or recommendations
Parallel Reasoning Questions
Identify two different arguments (one in stimulus one in answer choices) that use the same pattern to reach a similar conclusion
“most parallel to” “most similar to” “most like”
Parallel reasoning question stems
Parallel reasoning questions require you to find the same kind of ____ and ____ in the stimulus and answer
Evidence and conclusion
Tactic for parallel reasoning questions:
- identify and compare conclusion type in stimulus and answers, then if needed….
- Compare Conclusion +/-
- Compare Level of certainty of conclusion (may, will, must)
- Compare type of evidence used
Assumption family questions require that you determine the ___
implicit assumption (aka the unstated premise)
Assumption =
the unstated premise that logically connects the evidence to the conclusion
Mismatched Concept (assumption family questions)
The author moves from a discussion of particular terms and concepts in the evidence to a conclusion that introduces a new seemingly unrelated term or concept
Overlooked Possibilities (assumption family questions)
The author uses relevant evidence to jump to a conclusion that is too extreme, without considering potential objections or alternatives to that conclusion
Assumption questions - find the ___ in the argument
gap
Mismatched concepts - assuming one thing is equivalent to another ex:
I like games because I am serious
serious = liking games
Mismatched concepts - things are incompatible or mutually exclusive ex:
I don’t like games because I am serious
assume can’t have both
Mismatched concepts - sufficient, necessary - need evidence for conclusion ex:
I don’t like games because I am not serious
Not X because not Y
Formal logic in mismatched concept, what is the most common format?
Evidence: if A -> B
Conclusion: if A ->C
Assumption: if B ->C
How to use overlooked possibilities - Evidence and Conclusion use same topic but the conclusion drawn____
goes too extreme based on what your given. I.e. this MUST be the only answer, fails to consider alternatives.
Presupposes =
Assumes
What to look for in Sufficient Assumption questions
look for answer that, if added to the evidence, guarantees the conclusion is true
What to look for in Necessary Assumption questions
look for assumption that is necessary for the conclusion to make logical sense
`Necessary Assumption questions with overlooked possibilities (not mismatched concepts) the right answer might come from ____
ruling out at least 1 overlooked possibility.
Denial test for Nec. Assumption questions____
negate answer choice and “add” to evidence. If the conclusion doesn’t work now then that’s your right answer. I.e. this thing (not negated) is required.
“provides the most support”
Strengthen Question Stem
“reasoning in the argument is questionable”
Flaw Question Stem
“Identify the error in reasoning”
Flaw Question Stem
Flaw question, the correct answer will ___ the error in the author’s reasoning.
describe
Equivocation
using a term two different ways. Ex: using the word “crazy” to mean driving me crazy and then also “crazy” as in mentally unstable.
“which of the following undermines”
Weaken Question Stem
In strengthen and weaken questions ask yourself “if this was added to the evidence would this _____, ____, or ____ the conclusion.
help, hurt or do nothing to the conclusion
In weaken questions, correct answer usually introduces a ____ to the conclusion that the author has not considered.
possible objection. Points to something that the Au. has not considered.
“most strongly supports”
Strengthen Question Stem
In strengthen/weaken think ____ when thinking through answers.
“What if THIS was added to evidence”
In strengthen question, right answer doesn’t need to ___ the conclusion, just needs to ___.
prove the conclusion, just needs to make it more likely
Evaluative Questions
Ask you to find something that is relevant to the arguments validity. Whether the answer will strengthen or weaken the argument
“Principle” “Policy” “Proposition” “Apply the rule”
Principle Question Stems
Don’t be afraid of ____ language in Principle questions.
Broad. You are finding an overarching principle afterall.
“flaw…similar to”
Parallel Flaw Question Stem
Parallel Flaw Question Strategy
Determine flaw type in stimulus. Determine structure of stimulus. Evaluate answer choices and find match. Use FL and simple letter “stand ins” for terms if needed.
Parallel Principle Question Strategy
Identify the broad, general rule that is at work in the stimulus and then go through answer choices to find one that applies same “rule.”
Inference question, support flows ___
down
“Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?”
Inference Question Stem
“Which one of the following can be properly inferred by the passage?”
Inference Questions Stem
Inference Question - which of the answers must be true given what you have been told ___
in the stimulus passage
Inference ask yourself
“What do I know to be true”?
Flaw questions, ask yourself ____
Why am I not convinced?
Strengthen Questions may point to eliminating an ___
overlooked possibility. I.e. making what the Au. says more likely to be true.
In a principle question you are matching a situation to a ___
broad rule or generalization
Paradox solve the apparent ____
mystery or discrepancy
Paradox: how come fact 2___
even though fact 1
“resolve” “reconcile” “explain”
Paradox question stems
Think - Plan, Pause, Paraphrase and Predict
Helps you be confident, controlled and efficient in the LR section
