logical fallacies Flashcards
```
~~~
when an argument presumes the truth of the conclusion, instead of proving it.
ex. This offer can’t be a pyramid scheme because pyramid schemes are illegal.
begging the question/circular reasoning
when someone tries to evade proof by denying it, pretending to have fulfilled it, or shifting it to someone else, essentially claiming you do not have to prove your argument and in order for it to be unusable, it has to be proved false. The argument is not proved yet is claimed to be true unless it is disproven by the opposition.
ex. Aadi: “Walt Disney is cryogenically stored inside Cinderella’s castle.”
Doubter: “What reason would you have to believe that? There’s no way that’s true.”
Aadi: “Well it is true and you can’t prove me wrong, and unless you can prove me wrong my point stands.”
failing to accept the burden of proof
a claim made on the basis of insufficient evidence
ex. I’ve met two people in Australia so far and they were both nice to me. Therefore, all Australians are nice people.
hasty generalization
It’s an application of a general fact to a specific case
Men are statistically faster than women, so I (a man) must be faster than these women
sweeping generalization
when someone assumes that a particular statement or concept applies to every possible situation without considering exceptions
ex. All dogs are dangerous animals
overgeneralizations
to claim one event or action will lead to another, more extreme event or action
One example of this is the children’s book, If You Give a Mouse a Cookie.
The idea being that by giving a mouse a cookie, you are committed to satisfying his other requests, which will inevitable flow from giving the mouse the cookie. The issue being that these are speculations of what might occur by choosing to do one thing, and speculations do not work to make conclusive statements such as those that the slippery slope fallacies attempt to make.
slippery slope
when a key term or phrase in an argument is used in an ambiguous way, with one meaning in one portion of the argument and then another meaning in another portion of the argument
ex. When I asked you if I should turn left, you said right. Therefore, I was correct and you cannot get mad at me.
equivocations
Making an argument seem simpler by ignoring complexities, therefore losing information essential to the subject/issue
Violent video games are the cause of increased school shootings
oversimplification
it presents only two options or sides when there are many options or sides
ex. Since there is nothing good on TV tonight, I will just have to get drunk or go to sleep
either-or reasoning
when you judge 2 similar situations differently, when you should be using the same standards for both
ex. A father who allows his 16 year old son to stay out until midnight but doesn’t let his 16 year old daughter go out past 10pm
double standard
a conclusion or statement that does not logically follow from the previous argument or statement
ex. People died of cancer before cigarettes were invented, so smoking doesn’t cause cancer
non sequitr
An argument or reaction that is targeted at the person rather than their policies or position they are maintaining
ex. “We found these facts, care to respond”
“Everything in the media is fake news”
ad hominem
when someone distorts or exaggerates another person’s argument, and then attacks the distorted version of the argument instead of genuinely engaging
ex. Person 1: I think i’m gonna get a pet dog
Person 2:Oh so you hate all the other animals and want them to die
straw man
A tactic to divert attention away from the real issue at hand, and steering the conversation to a different, unrelated topic
ex. “But I’m the star player on the basketball team,” when asked about receiving a ‘C’ in a class.
red herring
One event is said to be the cause of a later event, simply because it occurred earlier
ex. Violent incidents have increased since the rise of video games. Video games must be causing violence.
post hoc ergo propter hoc
when two choices, outcomes, or sides in an argument are presented as the only possibilities, even though more exist
ex. If you’re not a Republican, you must be a Democrat.
false dilemma
when you assume something is true or correct based on its popularity alone: the concept of “majority rules” in a literal sense
ex. You need to drink because everyone at the party is going to be drinking too
bandwagon
When a word or phrase is not clearly defined, leading to confusion or avoidance of the topic
ex: “Can you go to the store and get a carton of milk, if they have avocados get 6”
“They had avocados (carrying 6 cartons of milk) <-
ambiguity
Agreeing to something without actually saying it, usually because you are unable to do so
ex. When you enter a store and pick up a product, there is an implicit understanding that you will pay for it at the checkout counter
tacit agreement
a concise, terse, laconic, or memorable expression of a general truth or principle
ex. “Actions speak louder than words.”
“An apple a day keeps the doctor away.”
“Speak softly and carry a big stick”.
aphorism
when a party shows only the positives associated with their side and omits or severely downplays any negative details that may exist
ex. a company advertising having 0 grams of trans-fat, not commenting on the other unhealthy things in the product
card stacking
where words and their meanings are distorted in order to deceive others
ex. “Ethnic cleansing” instead of “genocide”
“Violent extremism” instead of “terrorism”
“Reducing costs” instead of “cutting salaries”
doublespeak
is used to intimidate people into supporting an argument
ex. “If you go out alone at night, you might get murdered.”
“My dad is a cop, so don’t mess with me or you’ll regret it.
scare tactics
when one makes the audience believe that they need something that they really don’t, often using emotional appeal
ex. You need to take these SAT prep classes to be smart.
false need
when a authority figure says or supports a claim, it is “correct”, even if the authority figure has no real authority regarding the claim
ex. Lana del Rey said that if you take this supplement everyday, you’ll be super healthy
false authority
Drawing comparisons between different, potentially unrelated things in order to make the point that one is as good or bad as the other
ex. That parking attendant who gave me a ticket is as bad as Hitler
moral equivalencies
The false assumption that because two things are similar in one regard, they are similar in everything.
ex. The new animal is like a sheep because it has four-legs, fleece-like fur, and is sheep sized, so it can be added to the flock (it is a wolf)
faulty analogy
