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BIO 305 - A&P of Vertebrates > Locomotion in Vertebrates > Flashcards

Locomotion in Vertebrates Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the different forms of locomotion in vertebrates?

A

Swimming
Walking and Running
Jumping (Saltatory) Locomotion
Parachuting, Gliding, and Flight

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2
Q

What are the different types of swimmers?

A

Primary (fish already there) and Secondary (animals from the land that went back to water) swimmers

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3
Q

What are the characteristics of a primary swimmer?

A

They consist of fish and aquatic amphibians

Most are undulatory swimmers

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4
Q

What are the characteristics of a secondary swimmer?

A

Consist of sea turtles, penguins, alligators, pinnipeds, cetaceans
Most are oscillatory swimmers, others are undulatory

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5
Q

How do undulatory swimmers swim?

A

Use their body wall muscles for body movement and propel themselves with lateral undulations

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6
Q

How do oscillatory swimmers swim?

A

Propel themselves with oscillations or paddle-like movements of their tail or paired appendages

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7
Q

Are there undulatory swimmers that use paired fins?

A

Yes, the bowfin and stingray

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8
Q

What are the different types of undulatory swimmers?

A

Anguilliform (more than half of body)
Carangiform (about half of body)
Thunniform (less than half, just tail)
Ostraciform (only use tail, rest of body is rigid)

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9
Q

Why would penguins be good swimmers?

A

Evolved from ancestors with very strong pectoral muscles

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10
Q

Were ancient fish good swimmers?

A

Most had caudal fins, so probably could swim
Lack other fins, so probably lacked control
Their lifestyle was sitting at the bottom of the ocean floor with dermal armour and they weren’t dominating at the time, it was the invertebrates

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11
Q

What are some problems with locomotion in water?

A

Drag (this and buoy. = density of h2o)
Buoyancy
Specific heat of water

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12
Q

What is drag and what does it do?

A

It collectively refers to the frictional and other forces that tend to hold the fish back

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13
Q

How are fish adapted to swim in the water?

A

The vertebral centra are spool-shaped so it resists against the compressional forces in the water
Also, have a fusiform shape to minimize drag

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14
Q

What are the differences between frictional drag and pressure drag?

A

Frictional drag is the frictional force exerted on the fish due to the viscosity of the water
Pressure drag results from differences in water pressure between the front and rear of the fish

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15
Q

What is the boundary layer and what does it associate with?

A

It is the thin layer of water that surrounds a moving fish
The mucous secreted by a fish allows the water to associate with it, creating a layer of water over cop of the fish, decreasing drag

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16
Q

How do you decrease frictional drag?

A

Low surface area : mass ratio
Fish is swimming slowly
Water flows smoothly across the surface (flow is laminar)

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17
Q

How do you reduce pressure drag?

A

Depends on body shape: more streamlined = less pressure drag

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18
Q

How does pressure drag slow a fish down?

A

There is a high pressure at the head and low pressure over the posterior part, causing a negative pressure that essentially vacuums the fish backwards

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19
Q

Why is buoyancy a problem for swimming?

A

If you are sinking to the bottom, you won’t be a good swimmer

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20
Q

How do Chondrichthyes overcome buoyancy problems?

A

Cartilage instead of bone, which is less dense
Lipids in liver (squalene), also decreases density
Head shape, fins, heterocercal tail together create a straight motion for swimming

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21
Q

How are Osteichthyes adapted for buoyancy?

A

Actinopteyrgii

Swim bladder full of air allows them to be a bit heaver (bone, etc)

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22
Q

Why is the specific heat of water a problem?

A

The specific heat of water allows it to absorb heat quick, but not give it up
For ectotherms, it isn’t really a problem since their body temperature isn’t tightly regulated
For endotherms, their body temperatures are rigidly controlled, so tend to have a thick later of skin for insulation (subcutaneous fat) preventing heat loss

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23
Q

What are the different phases of the step cycle?

A

Propulsive phase –> swing phase

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24
Q

What is the difference between a step and a stride?

A

One stride is a step cycle for both legs (left foot to left foot), while a step is just for one leg (left foot to right foot)

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25
Q

Describe the step cycle in amphibians and reptiles

A

Undulating movements of the body (sinusoidal)
Limbs tend to be splayed out (horizontal plane)
Snakes have undulating movements and use friction as well
Alligator had a less undulating movement (more limb muscles probably)

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26
Q

Describe the step cycle in mammals

A

Limbs are rotated underneath the body = vertical plane of movement
Cursorial (runners) vs non cursorial

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27
Q

What is the difference in the pronghorn and prairie dog? Why?

A

The pronghorn is the fastest mammal in N.A.
Run fast probably because had pressure from predators who are now extinct
Praire dog is plantigrade and a burrowing animal

28
Q

What is a gait?

A

The particular combination of feet that are on and off a ground during a stride

29
Q

What is the difference between walking and running?

A

There is never a flight phase in walking (there is always 1 limb on the ground)

30
Q

What are some different ways of running?

A

Symmetrical (trot) - 2 legs in symmetry

Assymmetrical (gallop) - all 4 are out of phase, and it is generally faster with a longer suspension phase

31
Q

What is the formula for calculating speed?

A

Velocity = F (stride frequency) x L (stride length)

32
Q

How is the cheetah adapted for speed?

A

It can add to its stride length by flexing its back in its lumbar region. Also, its hind limbs come far forward due to powerful propulsive phase
If it couldn’t do this, it wouldn’t be able to outrun an antelope, which has long legs so should be faster

33
Q

What are the different toes of foot posture?

A

Plantigrade - wrist bones touch ground
Digitigrade - step on fingers
Unguligrade - only last phalange hits ground

34
Q

What types of foot postures are typical for a cursorial mammal?

A

Digitigrade and unguligrade

35
Q

How are unguligrade animals at an advantage?

A

Even if their bones were the same length, they would have a longer stride length. Also, more joints in the leg means more muscle attachments

36
Q

How is a frog specialized for jumping?

A

No tail, shortened strong thick vertebral column, powerful hind limbs, specialized pelvis and sacrum, radio ulna, sacroiliac joint (allows for lots of bend)

37
Q

How does a frog jump?

A

First it pushes off its front limbs, then off its hind limbs and pulls its hind limbs in to reduce drag and lands on front limbs which are strong

38
Q

How is kangaroo jumping different than the frog?

A

Its forelimbs are not involved, no crouching, and it has a long tail

39
Q

Why is the tail of a kangaroo important?

A

It acts as a counter balance

40
Q

How are the tendons of a kangaroo specialized?

A

They have a large Achilles tendon which a lot of elastic tissue
When it lands, it gains potential energy which it can use for its jump. So it is actually hard for kangaroos to jump slowly

41
Q

Why is parachuting important?

A

It allows an animal to break a fall and escape a predator

42
Q

How do you have to be adapted to parachute?

A

You have to have lots of surface area and low weight

43
Q

What is the difference with gliding compared to parachuting?

A

Gliding usually lets animals travel slower and also moves them in the horizontal component

44
Q

What are some examples of animals that parachute?

A

Tree frogs, arboreal lizards

45
Q

What are some examples of animals that glide?

A

Lizards, flying squirrel, flying fish, flying snake

46
Q

How do flying fish glide?

A

They have long pectoral fins which is an advantage to get out of the water, but it makes them bad swimmers.
First they shake off the water from their pec. fins and while they do this, the undulate their tail to get more speed and distance. Once they are in the air, they just glide

47
Q

How are wings shaped for flying?

A

An airfoil shape, which is similar to a fusiform shape, but asymmetric
It is to decrease drag

48
Q

What are the physics behind flight?

A

In order to fly, first the wing must cut through the air. This causes wind to go either above or below the wing, where below is less distance. This means that on top it must go faster, so it has a low pressure on top. This creates a negative pressure at top, and creates a vacuum, causing lift.

49
Q

What is the formula for calculating lift?

A

Lift (L) = 1/2pV^2SC

50
Q

What two parts of the formula are variable between different birds?

A

Air speed (V) and area of wing (S)

51
Q

What do slow flying birds have? Give an example of one.

A

They have low V, and high S

Eg. Vultures

52
Q

What do rapidly flying birds do? Give an example of one.

A

They have a high V, low S

Eg. Loons

53
Q

How do you calculate wing loading? What does it represent?

A

Wingloading = weight/S.A. of wings
For vultures = 0.3, Loons = 1.4
The higher the wing loading, the faster the bird has to fly to keep in the air?????

54
Q

In particular, how do birds fly?

A

Wings flapping do not create lift, instead it is air passing over the wing airfoils
ASK TONY

55
Q

How do bats fly?

A

ASK TONY

56
Q

How are hummingbirds specialized?

A

When they hover, they move their wings in a figure 8 motion
In the forward movement, it causes lift. Backstroke is for recovery
They can flap their wings at 15-83 times per second, while a goose does 12-70 per min

57
Q

What is a soarer? What are the different types?

A

A bird that can fly for long periods of time without flapping wings
Static and dynamic

58
Q

Whats the difference between a static and dynamic soarer?

A

Static soarers tend to soar when its hot out. They use the fact hot air rises to their advantage. These birds tend to have low wing loading (eg. vulture)
Dynamic soarers live close to water, using the coastal winds to help them create lift. Large S.A. but instead of broad, they are long (eg. albatross)

59
Q

What are some adjustments birds make during fast flight that prevent excess energy use?

A

Birds retract their feet, body becomes more horizontal, opened its mouth to get air into air sacs, head is pretty stable while body oscillates (neck adjusts to keep head stationary)

60
Q

What advantages do fixed (plane) wings have over flapping (bird) wings?

A 
Adv = stability
Disadv = Manoeuvrability decreases
61
Q

How are birds adapted for flight?

A 
Light skeleton (spongy bone), feathers beak
Large sternum with keel
Rib spurs to prevent collapse
Breathing - air flows 1 direction
Reproductive adaptation - 1 ovary
Nutrition - meat = high energy diets
62
Q

What are the theories for flight?

A
  1. Arboreal flight
  2. Running flight
  3. Wing Assisted Incline Running (W.A.I.R.)
63
Q

What is the arboreal flight theory?

A

Dinosaurs that used to be able to climb trees would glide from tree to tree (if they had good S.A. on pectoral limbs)

64
Q

What is the running flight theory?

A

Since most dinosaurs don’t look arboreal because theropods had weak forelimbs, this is a better theory
While dinosaurs ran, they jumped from obstacles. If they had feathers and jumped, could jump glide and increase maneuvarability

65
Q

What is the W.A.I.R. theory?

A

Wings could be used to help climb steep substrates - could climb substrates their predators didn’t and when on top of the “rock”, glide down to other side.

66
Q

How do the different types of locomotion rank in terms of energy? (from most to least)

A

Burrowing, runners, flying, and swimming (buoyancy helps)

BIO 305 - A&P of Vertebrates (7 decks)

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