- The act of moving from one place to another - Integrates anatomy with physiology - Translates cellular contraction into whole animal movement

Connective tissue – parallel fibers of collagen Interconnect elements of the musculoskeletal system - Ligaments (Bone to bone) - Tendons (Bone to tendon)

Locomotion Flashcards by Mackenzie Metz

What is locomotion?

The act of moving from one place to another
Integrates anatomy with physiology
Translates cellular contraction into whole animal movement

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Flow of locomotion?

Sensory system –> CNS –> Motor neurons; cardiovascular system; respiratory system; digestive system –> Muscles; skeleton; blood vessels (musculoskeletal system)

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Locomotor functions of skeletal system?

Structural support for appendages
Storage of energy in elastic devices
Biomechanical levers
Convert force of muscle contraction into movement

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What are some types of skeletal systems?

-Hydrostatic
Fluid-filled chambers (ex. Earthworm, squid)

-Exoskeleton
External skeleton – in arthropods

-Endoskeleton
Internal skeleton – in vertebrates

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How do most invertebrates move?

Most invertebrates move by crawling (insects are an exception)
Simple muscles work with hydrostatic skeleton
Some- Alternate contractions of circular and longitudinal muscles produce peristaltic waves of contraction

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How does a nematode move?

Contract- off ground
Relaxed- on ground
Only longitudinal muscle

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How does a worm move?

Longitudinal muscle contraction= scrunched up

Circular muscle contraction= elongated

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How does a squid move?

Layers of muscle arranged around a hollow chamber
Muscle fibers arranged in two dimensions within the body wall: Circular fibers and Radial fibers
Mantle muscles contract- jet period- water outflow
Relax- water influx

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How do echinoderms move?

Most sea stars and sea urchins use their tube feet for gas exchange
Tube feet inflated by water
Water is sucked in through madreporite and stored in bulbs
bulb contracts- pushes water into tube feet

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What has an exoskeleton?

Insects

Exoskeleton is made up of chitin
Muscles connect to the cuticle via myotendon junctions

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How do ants move?

With half their legs on the ground (3/6)

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What has an endoskeleton?

Vertebrates

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What is an endoskeleton made of? Evolutionary trends?

*Skeletons made of
cartilage only
bone and cartilage
*Evolutionary trends
More robust skeletons for tetrapods
Birds and bats have secondarily reduced skeletons for flight

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What connects bone?

*Connective tissue – parallel fibers of collagen
*Interconnect elements of the musculoskeletal system
Ligaments (Bone to bone)
Tendons (Bone to tendon)

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What are two main fiber (muscle) types in fish? What is each used for?

1. White
85% of muscle in body
Glycolytic, fatigues quickly
High intensity, burst swimming
2. Red
Oxidative, slow to fatigue
Slow, steady cruising

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What did tetrapods (four legs) transition to land require?

*Complex locomotor muscles and neuronal control
Muscles composed of heterogenous fiber types
Increased complexity because of many different types of movement: Standing, walking, running, hopping, flying

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What are 3 elements of levers? What depends on these position?

Fulcrum
Weight (load)
Force (effort)
-Mechanics of a lever

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What does Lfa, Lwa, and MA mean?

Lfa- length of force arm- distance between the force and the fulcrum
Lwa- length of the weight arm – distance between the fulcrum and the weight
MA- Mechanical advantage – ratio of the force arm to the length of the weight arm

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What are the 3 different classes of levers? Examples of each? Most common in animals?

Class:
1. Fulcrum placed between the effort and load. The movement of the load is in the opposite direction of the movement of the effort. Lfa > Lwa
Ex: Skull
2. Load between the effort and the fulcrum. Movement of the load is in the same direction as that of the effort. Lfa > Lwa
Ex: Ball of foot
3. Effort between the load and the fulcrum. Both the effort and load are in the same direction. Lfa < Lfw
Ex: Bicep

What lever do cheetahs vs lions have? How does this effect their speed?

-Cheetah: shorter LFA
less force, but fast
-Lion: longer LFA
more force, but slow

What are antagonistic muscles and locomotor module?

Antagonistic muscles - separate muscles that induce flexion and extension
Locomotor module - all muscles responsible for a type of movement

How do birds fly?

Upstroke= Supracoracoideus flexing
Downstroke=Pectoralis flexing
Trade off muscles flexing. As pectorals flexes it pulls the wings down but also creates a pull on the supra muscle which responds by flexing

How is ATP stored?

Muscles have an ATP store

- Larger storage in creatine phosphate

Compare glycolysis with aerobic metabolism.

**Glycolysis**
2 ATP per molecule of glucose
Fast ATP production
No oxygen dependence
Carbohydrates only
Stored fuel
**Aerobic metabolism**
36 ATP per molecule of glucose
Slow ATP production
Dependence on oxygen
Carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids
Stored and mobilized fuel

What does high intensity activity use large quantities of?

* Uses large quantities of glucose - Stored in muscle cell as glycogen - Produces lactic acid (Increases pH)

What does muscle exhaustion occur as a result of?

-Energetic shortfalls -Ion disturbances pH imbalance

How does the body recover from exhaustion?

- Replenish energy stores | - Reestablish ion gradients

How is lactate used during recovery? What was it produced by?

- Lactate produced by glycolysis removed during recovery - Oxidized by mitochondria in aerobic muscle - Converted back to glucose in the liver

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

- Allows long-term steady-state activity - More mitochondria increases aerobic capacity - Low mitochondria content in glycolytic muscles - High mitochondria content in oxidative muscles - Highest in flight muscles of insects and hummingbirds

What metabolic transitions occur during migration of salmon?

Start- lots of fat Middle- lots of protein; break down digestive tract for protein End- Lots of carbs

What's perfusion? What controls it?

How much blood is entering an organ | Smooth muscles in arterioles

Whats vasomotion? Vasoactive agents?

- Vasomotion - cycling between constriction and dilation at rest- increase in activity increases dilation duration - Vasoactive agents - chemicals that alter contractility of arteriole smooth muscle; may be released locally- NTs and metabolic end products

Whats angiogenesis? Triggered by what?

- Synthesis of additional blood vessels | - Triggered by persistent regional hypoxia- causes cells to proliferate and penetrate tissues

Whats myoglobin? 2 roles?

- Oxygen-binding heme protein in aerobic muscle - Two major roles: 1. Intracellular oxygen storage 2. Transport of oxygen – facilitates diffusion by binding to free oxygen

What are 2 main environmental factors influence locomotion?

1. Gravity | 2. Fluid properties of surrounding medium

What are 2 effects of boundary layers on locomotion?

1. Viscous effects - cost of carrying the boundary layer | 2. Inertial effects - cost of moving an object from rest

What have large boundary layers?

Zooplankton, insects, etc

Does gravity affect terrestrial animals more than aquatic animals? Why?

- Yes. - Terrestrial animals compensate with complex and substantial musculature - Aquatic animals benefit from a body density that approximates that of the environment - buoyancy

What increases buoyancy? Examples?

- Lipid stores - Animals accumulate lipids that increase buoyancy - Zooplankton – have large lipid droplets - Sharks – steroid compound (squalene) in livers - Marine mammals – thick blubber layer

Whats a swim bladder? How did it arise?

- Gives buoyancy control. - Likely arose as a primitive lung; buoyancy was a secondary function - Derived from an outgrowth of the GI tract

What's metamorphosis? Examples?

-Aquatic to terrestrial transition | Ex. Frogs – tadpole adapted to moving in water; Adult adapted for land – limbs, diverse musculature

What are two metazoan invasions of terrestrial environment?

- Invertebrates | - Vertebrates

What does velocity affect?

- Cost of transport - COT vs. speed is typically U-shaped - Preferred velocity is typically close to minimum COT - Animals alter style of movement to minimize COT

What does jumping require?

Jumping requires long legs and rapidly contracting muscle

Whats true flight? 2 examples. | Whats gliding?

- Remain airborne for long periods - Flapping or hovering - Soaring - Descend towards the ground

How do 3 different environments affect locomotion?

Locomotion on land – most energetically expensive Locomotion in air – lift minimizes the effect of gravity Locomotion in water – most energetically efficient

How does body size affect locomotion?

- Smaller animals have higher mass specific cost of transport - Water – drag increases with surface area (x^2); Power increases with volume of muscle (x^3) - Land – smaller animals need more uneconomical fast twitch fibers to move appendages faster.