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Animal Physiology University of Regina > Locomotion > Flashcards

Locomotion Flashcards

1
Q

What is locomotion?

A
  • The act of moving from one place to another
  • Integrates anatomy with physiology
  • Translates cellular contraction into whole animal movement
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2
Q

Flow of locomotion?

A

Sensory system –> CNS –> Motor neurons; cardiovascular system; respiratory system; digestive system –> Muscles; skeleton; blood vessels (musculoskeletal system)

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3
Q

Locomotor functions of skeletal system?

A
  • Structural support for appendages
  • Storage of energy in elastic devices
  • Biomechanical levers
  • Convert force of muscle contraction into movement
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4
Q

What are some types of skeletal systems?

A

-Hydrostatic
Fluid-filled chambers (ex. Earthworm, squid)

-Exoskeleton
External skeleton – in arthropods

-Endoskeleton
Internal skeleton – in vertebrates

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5
Q

How do most invertebrates move?

A
  • Most invertebrates move by crawling (insects are an exception)
  • Simple muscles work with hydrostatic skeleton
  • Some- Alternate contractions of circular and longitudinal muscles produce peristaltic waves of contraction
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6
Q

How does a nematode move?

A

Contract- off ground
Relaxed- on ground
Only longitudinal muscle

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7
Q

How does a worm move?

A

Longitudinal muscle contraction= scrunched up

Circular muscle contraction= elongated

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8
Q

How does a squid move?

A
  • Layers of muscle arranged around a hollow chamber
  • Muscle fibers arranged in two dimensions within the body wall: Circular fibers and Radial fibers
  • Mantle muscles contract- jet period- water outflow
  • Relax- water influx
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9
Q

How do echinoderms move?

A
  • Most sea stars and sea urchins use their tube feet for gas exchange
  • Tube feet inflated by water
  • Water is sucked in through madreporite and stored in bulbs
  • bulb contracts- pushes water into tube feet
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10
Q

What has an exoskeleton?

A

Insects

  • Exoskeleton is made up of chitin
  • Muscles connect to the cuticle via myotendon junctions
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11
Q

How do ants move?

A

With half their legs on the ground (3/6)

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12
Q

What has an endoskeleton?

A

Vertebrates

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13
Q

What is an endoskeleton made of? Evolutionary trends?

A
  • *Skeletons made of
  • cartilage only
  • bone and cartilage
  • *Evolutionary trends
  • More robust skeletons for tetrapods
  • Birds and bats have secondarily reduced skeletons for flight
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14
Q

What connects bone?

A
  • *Connective tissue – parallel fibers of collagen
  • *Interconnect elements of the musculoskeletal system
  • Ligaments (Bone to bone)
  • Tendons (Bone to tendon)
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15
Q

What are two main fiber (muscle) types in fish? What is each used for?

A 
1. White
85% of muscle in body
Glycolytic, fatigues quickly
High intensity, burst swimming
2. Red
Oxidative, slow to fatigue
Slow, steady cruising
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16
Q

What did tetrapods (four legs) transition to land require?

A
  • *Complex locomotor muscles and neuronal control
  • Muscles composed of heterogenous fiber types
  • Increased complexity because of many different types of movement: Standing, walking, running, hopping, flying
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17
Q

What are 3 elements of levers? What depends on these position?

A

Fulcrum
Weight (load)
Force (effort)
-Mechanics of a lever

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18
Q

What does Lfa, Lwa, and MA mean?

A
  1. Lfa- length of force arm- distance between the force and the fulcrum
  2. Lwa- length of the weight arm – distance between the fulcrum and the weight
  3. MA- Mechanical advantage – ratio of the force arm to the length of the weight arm
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19
Q

What are the 3 different classes of levers? Examples of each? Most common in animals?

A

Class:
1. Fulcrum placed between the effort and load. The movement of the load is in the opposite direction of the movement of the effort. Lfa > Lwa
Ex: Skull
2. Load between the effort and the fulcrum. Movement of the load is in the same direction as that of the effort. Lfa > Lwa
Ex: Ball of foot
3. Effort between the load and the fulcrum. Both the effort and load are in the same direction. Lfa < Lfw
Ex: Bicep

20
Q

What lever do cheetahs vs lions have? How does this effect their speed?

A

-Cheetah: shorter LFA
less force, but fast
-Lion: longer LFA
more force, but slow

21
Q

What are antagonistic muscles and locomotor module?

A
  • Antagonistic muscles - separate muscles that induce flexion and extension
  • Locomotor module - all muscles responsible for a type of movement
22
Q

How do birds fly?

A

Upstroke= Supracoracoideus flexing
Downstroke=Pectoralis flexing
Trade off muscles flexing. As pectorals flexes it pulls the wings down but also creates a pull on the supra muscle which responds by flexing

23
Q

How is ATP stored?

A
  • Muscles have an ATP store

- Larger storage in creatine phosphate

24
Q

Compare glycolysis with aerobic metabolism.

A 
**Glycolysis**
2 ATP per molecule of glucose
Fast ATP production
No oxygen dependence
Carbohydrates only
Stored fuel
**Aerobic metabolism**
36 ATP per molecule of glucose
Slow ATP production
Dependence on oxygen
Carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids
Stored and mobilized fuel
25
Q

What does high intensity activity use large quantities of?

A
  • Uses large quantities of glucose
  • Stored in muscle cell as glycogen
  • Produces lactic acid (Increases pH)
26
Q

What does muscle exhaustion occur as a result of?

A

-Energetic shortfalls
-Ion disturbances
pH imbalance

27
Q

How does the body recover from exhaustion?

A
  • Replenish energy stores

- Reestablish ion gradients

28
Q

How is lactate used during recovery? What was it produced by?

A
  • Lactate produced by glycolysis removed during recovery
  • Oxidized by mitochondria in aerobic muscle
  • Converted back to glucose in the liver
29
Q

What is oxidative phosphorylation?

A
  • Allows long-term steady-state activity
  • More mitochondria increases aerobic capacity
  • Low mitochondria content in glycolytic muscles
  • High mitochondria content in oxidative muscles
  • Highest in flight muscles of insects and hummingbirds
30
Q

What metabolic transitions occur during migration of salmon?

A

Start- lots of fat
Middle- lots of protein; break down digestive tract for protein
End- Lots of carbs

31
Q

What’s perfusion? What controls it?

A

How much blood is entering an organ

Smooth muscles in arterioles

32
Q

Whats vasomotion? Vasoactive agents?

A
  • Vasomotion - cycling between constriction and dilation at rest- increase in activity increases dilation duration
  • Vasoactive agents - chemicals that alter contractility of arteriole smooth muscle; may be released locally- NTs and metabolic end products
33
Q

Whats angiogenesis? Triggered by what?

A
  • Synthesis of additional blood vessels

- Triggered by persistent regional hypoxia- causes cells to proliferate and penetrate tissues

34
Q

Whats myoglobin? 2 roles?

A
  • Oxygen-binding heme protein in aerobic muscle
  • Two major roles:
    1. Intracellular oxygen storage
    2. Transport of oxygen – facilitates diffusion by binding to free oxygen
35
Q

What are 2 main environmental factors influence locomotion?

A
  1. Gravity

2. Fluid properties of surrounding medium

36
Q

What are 2 effects of boundary layers on locomotion?

A
  1. Viscous effects - cost of carrying the boundary layer

2. Inertial effects - cost of moving an object from rest

37
Q

What have large boundary layers?

A

Zooplankton, insects, etc

38
Q

Does gravity affect terrestrial animals more than aquatic animals? Why?

A
  • Yes.
  • Terrestrial animals compensate with complex and substantial musculature
  • Aquatic animals benefit from a body density that approximates that of the environment - buoyancy
39
Q

What increases buoyancy? Examples?

A
  • Lipid stores
  • Animals accumulate lipids that increase buoyancy
  • Zooplankton – have large lipid droplets
  • Sharks – steroid compound (squalene) in livers
  • Marine mammals – thick blubber layer
40
Q

Whats a swim bladder? How did it arise?

A
  • Gives buoyancy control.
  • Likely arose as a primitive lung; buoyancy was a secondary function
  • Derived from an outgrowth of the GI tract
41
Q

What’s metamorphosis? Examples?

A

-Aquatic to terrestrial transition

Ex. Frogs – tadpole adapted to moving in water; Adult adapted for land – limbs, diverse musculature

42
Q

What are two metazoan invasions of terrestrial environment?

A
  • Invertebrates

- Vertebrates

43
Q

What does velocity affect?

A
  • Cost of transport
  • COT vs. speed is typically U-shaped
  • Preferred velocity is typically close to minimum COT
  • Animals alter style of movement to minimize COT
44
Q

What does jumping require?

A

Jumping requires long legs and rapidly contracting muscle

45
Q

Whats true flight? 2 examples.

Whats gliding?

A
  • Remain airborne for long periods
  • Flapping or hovering
  • Soaring
  • Descend towards the ground
46
Q

How do 3 different environments affect locomotion?

A

Locomotion on land – most energetically expensive
Locomotion in air – lift minimizes the effect of gravity
Locomotion in water – most energetically efficient

47
Q

How does body size affect locomotion?

A
  • Smaller animals have higher mass specific cost of transport
  • Water – drag increases with surface area (x^2); Power increases with volume of muscle (x^3)
  • Land – smaller animals need more uneconomical fast twitch fibers to move appendages faster.

Animal Physiology University of Regina (7 decks)

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