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BMS107 > Locomotion > Flashcards

Locomotion Flashcards

1
Q

Movement and Locomotion

  • what they allow
  • 3 things movement requires
A
  • Movement allows response to stimuli and other important biological processes
    - important on gross scale or individ. body parts
  • Locamotion: the act of moving from one place to another

Movement requires;

  1. Support structure (bones)
  2. Contractile tissues (muscles)
  3. Control systems (nervous systems)
    * interaction of these 3 systems allow co-ordinated movement
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2
Q

Support structures (3)

A
  • Hydraulic systms: fluid filled chambers (is a hydrostatic skeleton)
    - e.g. coelomic fluid of earthworm - muscular contractions around space generates movement
  • Exoskeleton: Made from cellular secretions (mainly invertebrates)
    - e.g. insect cuticle - has hard outer surface
  • Endoskeleton - made from cellular secretions (vertebrate bone made of mineralised calcium)
    - bones on inside
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3
Q

Vertebrate Skeletons - CT

  • what it is and what it does
    e. g.
A
  • CT support and hold together various tissues and organs of an animal’s body
    • cells are contained in a matrix of non-living material (matrix is what makes them distinct)

e.g. bone, cartilage, blood, loose connective tissue (made of fibres, collagen and elastin)

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4
Q

Vertebrate Skeletons

  • what are generally made of (e.gs)
  • What cartilage and bone are made of
A
  • Made from specialised CT (cartilage and/or bone)
    • terrestrial animals require more robust skeletons
  • most are made from proteins such as collagen (bundled, high tensile strength)
    • e.g. shells of molluscs (collagen hardened with silicon or calcium salts)
      - Insect cuticles - collagen fibres linked together
      - Hair, nails and claws
  • Cartilage: collagen together w/ elastin and mucopolysaccharides
  • Bone: Deposition of calcium and phosphorus salts
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5
Q

Different CT in Vertebrate Skeletons

-Tendon, Cartilage and Bone

A

-Tendon: Regular, large bundles of collagen
-lots of tensile strength
-muscle to bone
-Cartilage: meshwork of collagen trapping massive sponge-like proteoglycans
-firm but resilient and ‘springy’
Bone: Woven collagen sheets trap hard, calcified matrix
-very hard but brittle

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6
Q

Types of cells of CT

Chondrocytes, Osteoblasts, Osteoclasts, Osteocytes

A

Chondrocytes: cells that produce cartilage
Osteoblasts: Cells that produce bone (mineralise ECM around them)
Osteoclast: Cells that dissolve cartilage and bone
-bones are living; are constantly being remodeled
Osteocyte: Osteoblasts that are surrounded by ossified ECM (maintainance role)

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7
Q

2 Forms of Foetal Bone Development

-bone that forms using these methods

A
  1. Intramembranous Ossification: Bone forms in areas of embryonic mesenchyme
    - skull, facial and clavicular bones
  2. Endochondral Ossification: Bone replaces embryonic cartilage in axial and appendicular skeleton

Woven bone -> Lamellar bone
*Slow appositional growth and lifelong remodelling

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8
Q

2 Types of Bones

-Blood vessels and osteoblasts

A
  • Compact Bone: Very loosely packed apatite crystals w/ collagen fibres arranged in sheets of lamellae
  • Spongy Bone: collagen fibres arranged in all directions; less dense network of apatite crystals
    - struts can tell you forces that are acting upon the bone

*Periosteum (outside of bone) is where bone forms - osteoblasts gradually enclose blood vessel and fill to enclose it

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9
Q

Features of Bones

  • Forces acting on bones and bodies
    • how it affects bones
A
  • Strong, but heavy
  • Hollow bones - strong external cortical cylinder, lighter internal framework of struts

Forces: Compression, tension, shear and torsion act on bodies and bones
-The architecture of bone is dictated by the stresses acting upon it

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10
Q

Assymetric Load -> best shape

Best shape when only one plane

A
  • For Assymetric Load: Cyclinder is a robust geometric form that can deal with both tension and compression
  • Only one plane: When bone primarily resists bending in only one plane, cylinder is NOT most efficient shape (joists, I-beams)
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11
Q

Joints

  • 3 types and amount of mobility
  • Features most mobile joints have to reduce friction and to maintain congruence

Other collagen based bone connections (2)

A
  • Fibrous Joints: are mostly immobile (e.g. bones of skull)
  • Cartilaginous joints: allow limited movement (e.g. pubic symphysis)
  • Synovial joints: are freely mobile
    • To reduce friction: have synovial fluid, articular cartilage
      - to maintain congruence: Articular shape, menisci (help distribute weight over bone), ligaments, muscles

Other collagen based Bone connections: Ligaments (bone to bone) and Tendon (muscle to bone)

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12
Q

Lever Mechanics of Locomotion

  • Parts of the Lever
    • Lever, Fulcrum, Effort, Load
A
  • Lever = rigid rod (bone)
  • Fulcrum = fixed point of articulation (joint)
  • Effort = force applied to move the lever (muscle)
  • Load = Any movement that resists movement of the lever

*Levers can be used to exert a large force over a small distance at one end by exerting only a small force over a greater distance at the other

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13
Q

e. g. of Lever (picking up a rock)
- What mechanism of lever action depends on
- Weight arm and force arm

A
  • Bending arm to pick up rock
    • Fulcrum = elbow, rock = load, biceps generate effort
  • mechanism of lever action depends on positions of 3 elements
  • Weight arm = fulcrum and load
  • Force arm = force (load) and fulcrum
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14
Q

Mechanism Advantage

Range of Motion

*what both are proportional to

A
  • Mechanism Advantage: The ration of the load to the effort
  • Range of Motion: Is the distance the load is moved

*both are proportional to the distance of the load from the fulcrum

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15
Q

3 Classes of Lever

A
  1. Long force arm and weight arm closer to load= large mechanism advantage
    • minimum force to lift large weight E.g. crowbar
  2. Load between fulcrum and effort
    - can lift a lot e.g. wheelbarrow
  3. Least effective in translating muscle force into leverage can move quickly and over large distance
    e. g. biceps (insert between elbow and hand)
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16
Q

Lever Mechanics of Locomotion

A
  • Stride length a consequence of range of motion and is proportional to length of the load arm
    • limb length
      • tend to max length of lever for small muscle contraction = larger movement

-outlevers works well for hopping animals

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17
Q

-What provides power for movement

  • Flexion and extension
    • Antagonistic muscles

-Locomotion module

A
  • Contractile muscle fibres provide the power for movement (muscles can only contract)
  • Flexion: limb bends at a joint
  • Extension: Limb straightens
    - Antagonistic muscles: separate muscles that induce flexion and extension
  • Locomotor module: all muscles responsible for a type of movement (e.g. bird flight muscles)
18
Q

-Composition of muscle fibres

  • Myofibrils & sacromeres
    - thin and thick filaments

-Sacrolemma

A
  • Skeletal muscles composed of Muscle fibres (that are bundled in muscle fasicles)
    - contain many internal myofibrils
  • Myofibrils: formed from a chain of repeating units called sacromeres (striations)
    - each has thin filaments (actin) and thick filaments (myosin)
  • Sacrolemma: External membrane of muscle cells
19
Q

Muscles -> how they work

A
  • Energy (form of ATP) causes myosin heads to move along the actin filaments - shortening the myofibrils and contracting the muscle
    - attaches via chemical bonds
20
Q

Force versus Speed

-effect of length and width of muscles

A
  • Forces versus Speed
  • each sacromere contracts at the same rate -> long muscles shorten faster and further than short ones
  • Each sacromeres contracts with the same force, thick muscles are more powerful than thin ones

*If you lift weights: more sacromeres in width/parallel = force generation

21
Q

Control of Muscles

A
  • Muscle contraction is controlled by motor nerves which connect to muscle fibres at neuromuscular junction
    • voluntary control via CNS
  • Synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters that generate contractions
    • at neuromuscular junction
  • each muscle fiber has an neuron
  • Pattern of muscle activation is called recruitment
22
Q

2 Types of Skeletal Muscle fiber types

A
  • White: rapid, fatigue
    • 85% of muscle
    • glycolytic
    • High intestity, burst of energy
  • Red: Lots of mitochondria
    • Oxidative: lots of mitochondria - use ATP via cellular respiration
    • slow, steady cruising
    • fuel stores can sustain activity longer
  • Transition to land = more complex locomotor muscles ad neuronal control
    • Muscles are mosaics of different fiber types
23
Q

Muscle Metabolism -> Aerobic Metabolism

A
  • Aerobic Metabolism: long term steady state activity and slower
    • uses oxygen to generate ATP
    • More mitochondria increases aerobic capacity
      • high content in oxidative muscles
  • Highest in flight muscles of insects and hummingbirds (Half of muscle intracellular volume)
  • produces 36 ATP per molecule of glucose
24
Q

Muscle Metabolism -> Glycolysis

A
  • High intestity activity - rapid movements
    • Produces lactic acid (from glycogen)
      • muscle exhaustion
      • recovery: replenish energy stores -> energy for recovery metabolism is provided by aerobic metabolism
  • Produces 2 ATP per molecule glucose
25
Q

Muscle Metabolism

-types of fuels used

A
  • Type of fuel used changes in response to activity level
  • Metabolic transitions are controlled by hormones
    - affect production and release from storage tissues
    - affect ability of muscles to use the fuels
  • Steady-state activity: utilize which fuel is abundant
26
Q

Main energy source used in low to moderate activity and Sustained activity

-how regulated

A
  • Low to moderate activity
    • glucose is main fuel
      - controlled by insulin and cortisol -> promote liver glycogen breakdown
      • enhance glucose uptake by the muscle
  • Sustained activity
    - triglycerides become increasingly important
    - controlled by lipase which is controlled by corticotropin, epinephrin, norepinephrin and glucagon
    - mobilized from muscle and adipose tissues
27
Q

Oxygen Delivery - diffusion and cardiovascular system

-How Oxygen gets to muscles

  • rate of diffusion
  • Capillary Tortuousity
A
  • Diffusion: small animals with low metabolic rates, e.g., flatworms
  • Cardiovascular system: larger, more active animals
  • Rate of diffusions depends on;
    • Concentration gradient
    • Diffusion distance (capillary density)
  • Capillary Tortuousity: Capillaries weaves back and forth across the muscle
    - O2 levels decline along capillary - region of muscle may be served by many capillaries
28
Q

Cursorial Advantage (animals adapted to running far and over landscapes)

A
  • Forage over large arias
  • Seek new food sources
  • Seasonal variation in food

*important for both predators and prey

29
Q

Elastic Storage of energy

-benefits

A
  • Skeletons can store elastic energy
    • Potential mechanical energy stored
  • occurs through stretching of CT
  • When muscles contract, it stretches the CT and bends the bones
    • when relaxes, energy can be released to help in locomotion
    • recoil in spider’s legs can help decrease energy
30
Q

Moving in the Environment

-2 main environmental factors

A
  • 2 main enviro factors;
    • Gravity
    • Fluid properties (also important for flying animals)
  • physiology of locomotion has more to do with the physical environment than the pattern of limb movement
31
Q

Which forces affect terrestrial animals most

-How aquatic animals deal with this force

A
  • Gravity affects terrestrial animals more than aquatic
    • have complex and substantial musculature to compensate
  • Aquatic animals benefit from body density that equals that of enviro (buoyancy is the tendency to oppose gravity - upwards force)
32
Q

Buoyancy

e.g. shark

A
  • Animals accumulate lipids to increase buoyancy (are less dense than water)
  • Sharks produce lots of triglyercides in liver and cartilage skeleton -> help buoyancy
33
Q

Fluid Mechanics

  • fluid dynamics
  • Boundary Layer
A
  • moving through fluid = complex pattern of flow
  • Fluid dynamics: rules that describe the movement of a fluid (also applies to air)
  • Boundary Layer: Molecular layer of fluid that is influence by the surface of the object - thickness of this layer is dependent on the fluid viscosity
  • larger animal = smaller boundary effect
  • smaller animal = larger boundary effect
34
Q

Reducing Drag

-What swimmers and fliers have to overcome (3)

A
  • For an object to move it must overcome drag
    • does this by streamlining
  • Reduce drag
  • Generate lift
  • Generating thrust
35
Q

How Birds generate lift

-How shape and angle of attack affect lift (2)

A
  • wings rounder at frong, curved on top and tapers towards back
  • generates a pressure difference
  • get pocket of negative pressure behind back = upwards lift
  • longer curved surface means greater lift but also greater drag
  • high angle of attack also increases lift
    • but also need greater velocity to get going
36
Q

Generating lift (2)

  • soaring
  • Aspect Ratio
A
  • Gliding: no metabolic cost - only maintained over short distances but gradually descent towards the ground
  • True flight: remain airborne for long periods
    • Soaring: using lift from natural air currents to overcome gravity
  • Aspect Ratio: length to width
    • larger birds have longer, narrower wings to generate enough lift to be efficient
37
Q

Generating Propulstions

A

-Propulsion force overcomes drag -> produces vortices (circular pattern of fluid/air)

38
Q

Propulsion - tails of fish (2)

A
  • Homocercal tail: same top and bottom length
    • shape of fins help generate propulsion
  • Heteroceral tail (weak) and Heteroceral tail (strong) - adapted for more efficient life rather than propulsion
39
Q

Cost of Transport (COT)

  • what it is
  • what related to
  • how animals aim to decrease it over different velocities
A
  • metabolic rate/locomoter velocity = ml of O2 per m
  • is linearly related to speed
  • many animals utilise different styles of movments over different velocities to maximize efficiency (e.g. horse - walk, trot canker and gallop)
40
Q

Cost of Transport for different types of animals

A
  • Land: must fight effects of gravity (highest COT)
  • Air: lift minimizes the effect of gravity
  • Swimmers: neutral buoyancy negates the effects of gravity - have the lowest cost of tranport due to buoyancy
41
Q

Costs of locomotion; Effects of body size

  • absolute and relative
  • Relative; in water and land/air
A
  • Larger animals use more energy to move because they are larger (in absolute terms)
  • In proportion to body mass, small animals use more energy to move a given distance
    • locomotion is more economical for large animals than small animals
  • Smaller animals in water use more energy because;
    • drag increases with surface area - but power increases with muscle mass (MORE SO)
  • Land/Air:
    - smaller animals need more uneconomical fast-twitch fibres to move appendages faster
    - larger animals can store more elastic energy during movement
    - larger muscles and tendons store more elastic energy

BMS107 (15 decks)

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