Lithosphere Flashcards
Describe the igneous processes that can cause the formation of metal ores around batholith.(2)
Hydrothermal/hot solutions;
cooling/freezing out/coming out of solution/crystallisation/separation; in vein;
magmatic segregation;
crystal/mineral density/melting point;
contact metasomatism;
mineral/rock replacement;
named mineral/ore;
[R metal unless elemental mineral]
Describe how future mineral supplies can be increased by better exploration techniques.(2)
Named technique;; description of how it works;; eg remote sensing monitoring from a distance/aerial/satellite surveys
gravimetry
density/force of gravity/igneous ores/named dense mineral
scintillometry/Geiger counter
radioactivity/named radioactive material
magnetometry
magnetic materials/magnetite/pyrrhotite/ilmenite/other named example
resistivity
ease of passage of electricity/metal ores/named ore
seismic/sonar
reflected/vibrations
core
sampling chemical/physical analysis
IR emission
analysis of different wave lengths
geobotany
plants associated with minerals
Explain the difference in the meanings of ‘resource’ and ‘reserve’. (2)
Resource
amount present/that can theoretically be exploited;
reserve
amount that can be exploited economically now/with existing technology;
Explain why the chemical form of a metal ore may affect the viability of exploitation. (2)
Named ore/mineral/metal;
qualified ease of (chemical) separation/bond breaking;
ref to reactivity;
Outline a technique that can be used to exploit low-grade ores. (2)
Named technique;
detail of method;
acid added
dissolves
bacteria/Thiobacillus
acid produced bioconcentration
hyperaccumulators/named taxon eg brassicas
precipitation/displacement
named chemical added eg Fe to displace Cu
electrolysis
ion deposition/electrode
ion substitution
named (ion) exchange material eg resin
open-cast mining
economies of scale
Explain the meaning of the term ‘cut-off ore grade’. (2)
Lowest grade;
that can be economically exploited;
Describe the effect that increased mechanisation has had on the amount of metal ore that can be mined. (2)
Increased amount;
deeper mining;
less labour intensive;
lower production/extraction costs/increased profit/more can be spent on mining
Suggest how the rapidly expanding industrial economies of China and India may affect the viability of tin mining at South Crofty. (3)
Increased demand;
higher (market) price/reduced cut-off ore grade;
increased viability;
OR
increased supply;
reduced price/increased cut off ore grade;
reduced viability/shuts
Describe how the typical pH of drainage water from the mine may be measured. (3)
Large sample numbers/long time period/regular samples/sample location;
pH meter; calibration; OR pH papers/solution/universal indicator/ref to pH/values; colour comparison; barium sulfate/sediment removal;
[R litmus papers]
Describe how the organic matter content of a soil sample may be estimated. (4)
Dry soil; weigh sample (of dry soil afterwards); heat to approx 500 °C/with Bunsen burner; burn off/oxidise organic matter; re-weigh (burnt soil); constant mass; mass difference = OM content (dry – burnt); calculate OM as a percent of dry soil;
Suggest how bacteria in the soil may affect its fertility. (4)
Nitrogen fixation; root nodules; nitrification; dentrification; decomposition; nutrients released; named nutrient (released);; humification; weathering; respiration; pH change/organic acids produced; toxin production; named bacterial taxa eg Rhizobium, Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas, Azotobacter, Pseudomonas, Nostoc;;
Outline how topography may affect the suitability of a site for reservoir construction. (2)
Named/described topographical feature;
impact on suitability;
eg
valley shape, steep sides, narrow exit for dam
effect on volume, evaporation rate, land loss
Outline how geology may affect the suitability of a site for reservoir construction.(2)
Named/described geological feature; impact on suitability; eg permeability speed of flow into/out of bedrock
stability/seismic activity/faults
collapse risk
stability/strength
subsidence risk
Outline two features of the overburden above the mineral that can affect the viability of the mine. (4)
Feature;; advantage/disadvantage;; eg hard difficulty mining
loose, uncompacted
landslides, more removed
deep
increased cost
permeable
drainage problems
chemical composition
pollution risk
Outline two methods of reducing environmental problems caused by mine machinery. (4)
Method to reduce problem 1;
detail of method 1;
method to reduce problem 2;
detail of method 2;
eg
water sprays for dust
settling
baffle mounds/trees for noise
absorption/deflection
timing/routing of traffic
avoid sensitive times/areas
choice of quieter transport method
rail replaces lorries
change of fuel to reduce spillage problems (biofuel)
biodegradable
One method used in spoil heap reclamation is the addition of soil followed by tree planting. The soil must have the right texture to reduce the risk of soil erosion.
Outline a method used to estimate the proportions of sand, silt, and clay in a soil sample. (2)
Add water and suspend/shake; allow to settle; measure proportions; OR dry; (shake through) sieve; weigh;
Suggest two ways in which exploiting low grade ores may cause increased environmental damage. (4)
Increased quantity that must be mined;
increased land take;
increased waste production;
named problem caused by waste;
increased energy use;
named problem of energy use;
Use an example to outline how material substitution can be used to conserve finite resources.(2)
Named new and replaced materials; named use/property; eg plastic replaces steel/chromium bumpers/body panels/lower density/cheaper
plastic replaces copper
fibre optics/light/total internal reflection
plastic replaces copper/lead
lighter/cheaper/glueable/piping
plastic replaces aluminium
reduced use of fossil fuels
biodiesel replaces fossil fuels
renewable
Describe how better exploratory techniques can be used to increase the proven reserves of minerals. (4)
Up to 3 named methods;;; up to 2 features of how methods work;; eg remote sensing/airborne surveys gravimetry scintillometry magnetometry resistivity submarines/ROV radar GPS soil/rock chemical analysis
A student planned a practical activity to determine the organic matter content of the soil in a field.
Describe a sample collection procedure which would ensure that the samples were representative of the whole field. (3)
Random/systematic/stratified sampling; how sampling sites are located; eg grid/random numbers number of samples; sample size; depth of samples; timing of samples; standardised collection method; explanation of why samples are representative;
Describe how the organic matter content of a dry soil sample could be measured. (3)
Weigh;
heat to high temperature/500−800°C/use Bunsen burner;
burn off/oxidise organic matter;
constant mass;
calculate mass drop/difference/percentage
Soil organisms play important roles in the nitrogen cycle.
Describe a method used to extract detritivores from soil.(3)
Tullgren funnel; heat/light; downward movement; collection; OR detergent/irritant/alternative material; collection area; worms come to surface; detail of timing; OR measured area; measured depth; dig up soil; hand sort/count worms;
Outline methods, other than revegetation, that can be used to stabilise mine spoil heaps. (4)
Method 1;
how method works;
Method 2;
how method works;
Method 3;
eg
landscaping/reduced slope angle/regraded/flatten out/spread
runoff slower/shearing reduced
organic matter incorporated
soil particle cohesion increased/stick together
addition of fertiliser/nutrients/lime/pH control
increased growth/root binding
compaction
increased cohesion/lower water content/soil particles stick together
drainage control/terracing/runoff collection/redirection
reduced lubrication/saturation/soil mass
toe foot support/retaining wall
barrier to movement/reduces shearing (stress)/prevents basal erosion
ground anchors/piles/poles and net/mesh
holds spoil together/allows plants to grow through
[R method if description is contradictory]
Describe how a Tüllgren funnel may be used to extract small invertebrates from a soil sample. (4)
Soil sample in middle/lower container/above funnel/below light; light/heat; time; organisms repelled/move away (from light/heat); [R movement due to gravity] through grill/mesh/filter/seive; collected (in container); preservative/named preservative; named taxon;
Explain why some soil invertebrates cannot be extracted using a Tüllgren funnel. (2)
Not mobile/too slow;
too large/big to pass through holes/grill/mesh/filter;
[R too large to enter funnel]
desiccation/die;
not repelled by/attracted to light/heat/dryness;
named taxon;
Habitat biodiversity is affected by soil pH. Describe how soil pH may be measured. (3)
EITHER multiple/many samples; addition of distilled water; pH meter;calibration; OR multiple/many samples; add distilled water; barium sulfate addition; pH papers/solution/universal indicator; colour comparison/reference to range of colours; [R litmus papers/red-blue]
Outline how soil structure affects soil fertility. (2)
Named ped/structure/description of ped feature;
eg crumb/block/plate/shape and size
property affecting fertility;
eg drainage/leaching/nutrient content/nutrient release/water content/aeration/root penetration/ temperature/ thermal capacity
[R reference to properties caused by texture/sand/silt/clay]
Describe one method that can be used to analyse the texture of a soil sample.(3)
EITHER Sieves/filters; dry soil; shake; ref to sequence different sizes of holes; ref to order of sand, silt, clay (in sieve stack); mass/volume percentage calculation; OR sedimentation: water; shake; settle; ref to order of (settling of) sand, silt, clay; mass/volume percentage calculation;
Describe how the texture of a soil affects its properties. (4)
Named particle type; how texture directly affects: drainage/permeability; porosity; leaching; capillary action; water content; nutrient content; aeration; decomposition rate; aerobic biota; temperature/thermal capacity; erodibility; friability/ease of cultivation/root penetration; particle charges/attraction;
Outline the reasons why a mine may not be developed, even if rich ore deposits have been found. (4)
Ore body distribution/fragmented/irregular shape;
chemical form/difficulty of chemical extraction;
named land use conflict/local opposition;
ease of site access;
named overburden property/hard/loose;
depth of deposit/overburden thickness;
drainage difficulties;
seismic problems;
infrastructure problems; eg transport, energy, water
workforce availability/cost;
political/named economic problems;
named technological problem;
[R ore purity]
Describe the main processes that have produced deposits of minerals and rocks that may be exploited by humans.
Quality of Written Communication will be assessed in this answer. (10)
Igneous; named eg; igneous processes;;; eg tectonic/plate movements magma/molten rock extrusive/intrusive batholith rate of crystallisation hydrothermal solubility temperature contact metasomatism magmatic segregation
metamorphic; named eg; metamorphic processes;;; eg changing form of existing rock intense heat intense pressure source of heat/pressure
sedimentary; named eg; sedimentary processes;;; eg weathering/erosion (of existing rock) wind deposited alluvial sorting placer deposits evaporite biological deposits compaction cementation chemical precipitation
Explain the effect of the development of new methods of exploiting low-ore grades on the quantity of a metal that can be extracted economically. (2)
(reserves) increase/more deposits become accessible/exploitable;
reduced production costs/ lower energy inputs;
bioleaching/phytomining/electrolysis/named low ore grade extraction technique;
Explain the effect of an increase in the market price of the purified metal on the quantity of metal that can be extracted economically. (2)
(reserves) increase;
previously uneconomic deposits become economic/cut-off ore grade decrease/ can afford to spend more on extraction;
Explain the effect of an increase in the cut-off ore grade on the quantity of a metal that can be extracted economically. (2)
(reserves) decrease;
previously exploitable/ lower grade deposits no longer economic;
Explain how the timing of sampling may have been standardised to collect representative data of the pH of the river which receives the acidic drainage water. (2)
frequent enough/ monthly or more frequently;
to detect fluctations
Suggest two reasons to explain the fluctuations in the pH of the river water. (2)
time-related factor that may affect results;;
eg
fluctuation in rainfall/runoff
snow melt
fluctuation in evaporation
changes in pumping/ discharge from mine/ mine activity
intermittent addition of lime
Describe the processes involved in the formation of hydrothermal metal ores that make present-day economic exploitation viable. (3)
mineral dissolved in hot water;
movement away from batholith/ along fissures
cooling;
reduced solubility;
crystallisation;
order of deposition/ separation of different minerals (by solubility);
in veins/lodes/local concentration
Name the physical conditions under which metamorphic processes produce marble.(1)
intense heat and pressure;
Describe how two named exploratory techniques may be used to find previously undiscovered mineral deposits (4)
named method; description of how method locates minerals; eg IR spectroscopy emission of different wavelengths
gravitmetry
density
magnetometry
magnetic minerals
seismic surveys/ ground penetrating radar
sound/pressure waves- depth/density/shape
resistivity
ease of conduction of electricity
geobotany
plant presence
areial/ satellite imagery
topography
trial drilling
chemical analysis
Outline how remote sensing may be used to detect the location of mineral deposits. (3)
named method; what it detects; eg image/scan/photograph topography/IR emissions
magnetrometry
magnetic minerals/iron/named iron ore
gravimetry
density/named metal ore
scintillometry/geiger counter
radioactive materials/uranium
seismic surveys/ ground penetrating radar/sonar/ultrasound
changes in density/depth/angle
resistivity
changes in conductivity/named conductive material/metals
side looking radar/SLAR
topography/ alluvial deposits
[R core sampling]
Suggest why a mine may not be developed, even if ore deposits above the cut-off ore grade have been found. (5)
size/shape of deposit; depth; overburden hardness; overburden stability; named land-use conflict; transport infrastructure; energy supplies; hydrology; political problems; wrong chemical form; faulting/seismicity; stated economic cost;
How would the area that may be mined economically change if the COOG decreases? (1)
increases;
Describe one named remote sensing method that may be used to find ares where the trial drilling. (3)
named method; details of method; eg gravimetry variations in density igneous rocks
magnetometry
variations in magnetism
iron/magnetite/named magnetic metal/mineral
seismc surveys/ground penetrating radar/sonar/ultrasound
shock waves/echoes/reflection
depth/density/angle/3D image
IR sensors
differences in IR emissions
detect rocks/minerals/vegetation
side looking radar/ultrasound
topography
alluvial deposits
resistivity/conductivity ease of electricity flow meatal-bearing rock
aerial photography
topography
salt dome/fault line/valleys/variations in rock erosion/folding
Explain why the exploitation of low-grade ores may increase the environmental damage caused by mineral exploitation. (3)
greater area mined/more habit loss; more overburden/spoil; more rock/ore extracted; more energy used; more waste produced/pollution caused;
How does the resource of a mineral differ from its reserves? (2)
resource
theoretical maximum exploitable amounts;
reserve
exploitable with existing technology at current prices
What is meant by resource? (2)
(quantity that is) theoretically exploitable;
at any price with any technology;
What is meant by reserves? (2)
(quantity that is) exploitable now;
at current prices with existing technology;
Recycling used materials helps to extend the lifespan of mineral reserves.
Describe why it is difficult to recycle some used materials. (2)
material identification; mixed materials/material separation; dispersed/transport distance; low waste density/bulky; low/reduced quality; hazardous/toxic/stated danger; thermoset plastics; irreversible chemical reaction/theroset;
Recycling used materials helps to extend the lifespan of mineral reserves.
Use an example to outline how material substitution may reduce demand for a named material. (3)
named material used linked to; named material replaced; named use; eg plastic copper pipes
Mine drainage watercan alter the pH of the rivers into which the water is discharged.
Describe one method that can be used to measure the pH of mine drainage water. (2)
electronic pH meter/probe; calibrated; or universal indicator solution/papers; [R litmus paper] colour comparison/colour chart/colorimeter;
Outline two other environmental problems for local rivers, which may be caused by mine drainage water, and suggest how the mine drainage water may be treated to control each problem. (4)
problem;; linked solution;; eg turbidity/suspended solids sedimentation/filtration/settling or heavy metal leachate lime/high pH reducd solubility/phytoremediation/electrolysis [R toxic leachate unless qualified] or altered river flow rate control of pumping rate or phosphates iron salts/flocculation/reed bed/phytoremediation or soluble iron aeration or cyanide oxidation/ use of SO2
Describe methods that may be used to reduce the environmental problems caused by the solid wastes produced by mining. (4)
method;;; description of how method works;; eg sloped reduction/grading/recontouring decreased water velocity/decreased particle mobility
spoil compaction
increased particle cohesion/reduced erosion
reduced water content
netting/bolting
reduced particle mobility
drainage
reduced particle mobility/reduced lubrication/reduced mass
top soil addition
increased plant growth
fertiliser addition
increased plant growth
vegetation planting
root binding
reduced wind velocity/reduced water velocity
backfilling
alternative use of spoil
water spray
dust aggregation
credit each description only once
Decribe the proocesses that produce hydrothermal metal mineral deposits. (4)
hot water/steam;
dissolved minerals;
different solubility (of different metal minerals);
movement (of solution along fissure/vent/fault);
cooling (of solution);
deposition/crystallisation/coming out of solution/precipitaion;
order (of deposition)/ separation;
Before a mine can be developed, thorough surveys of the mineral deposits and associated geological structures must be over taken.
Outline how an assessment of the viability of a mine requires information about the mineral deposits. (3)
ore purity; chemical form; ore body area; ore body shape; total mass/quantity; effect of feature on viability;
[R unqualified economics]
Before a mine can be developed, thorough surveys of the mineral deposits and associated geological structures must be over taken.
Outline how an assessment of the viability of a mine requires information about the associated geological structures. (3)
overburden hardness (of removal); overburden stability (for landslip risk); depth/overburden thickness; drainage; faulting; shape of structure/anticline/syncline/dome/dip/named example; designated/protected geological feature; effect of feature on viability;
Suggest one reason why the energy used for extraction increases as the ore grade declines. (1)
more ore/rock needs to be extracted/processed/waste removed/ named processing activity;
(chemically) difficult to extract very low concentrations/ separate metals from ore/ extra processes needed/more refining;
Describe one method that is used to extract metals from low ore grade. (2)
one suitable method; detail of how it works; eg leachate collection/recycling/evaporation electrolysis
thiobacillus/acidthiobacillus/bacteria
oxidise sulfur/produce acid/ acidic solution dissolves metal/copper
phytoremediation/hyperaccumulators/brassicas
absorption of metal
ion exchange/polymer surface
adsorption of metal/ions
addition of more reactive metal
precipitation
gold dissolves in
mercury/(sodium) cyanide
Exploratory drilling to search for new deposits is very expensive.
Describe one method that is used to find the areas where drilling may be worthwhile. (2)
named exploratory method; detail of how method works; eg gravimetry detection of changes in rock density
magnetometry
detection of changes in rock magnetism
geobotany
plants as indicators of rock type
seismic surveys/echoes/vibrations/sonar/radar/ultrasound
indicate depth/shape/hardness/density of rock
satellite/aerial imagery
named geological structures/topography/reflectance signatures
resistivity measurements
relative resistances indicate rock type
radioactivity measurement
indicates specific rocks/named example
UV detection
fluorescence of particular minerals
[R core drilling, unqualified remote sensing]
Suggest why an increase in the market price may change the cut-off ore grade of a mineral. (3)
more money available for extraction/investment/expensive techniques;
lower grade ores can be exploited;
COOG goes down;
Outline the advantages and disadvantages of using satellite techniques rather than ground-based surveys. (4)
advantages;; eg large area surveyed rapidly surveys of inaccessible areas cost effective/less labour intensive lower habitat impact
disadvantages;; eg high inital cost less detailed information less sub-surface information clouds obscure surface no physicalsamples (for analysis)
Explain why the cut-off ore grade was at its highest. (1)
(lowest price so) greater purity (needed to be profitable/economic)
Explain why the market price caused the estimates of reserves to increase. (1)
previously uneconomic resource/lower grade ore becomes economic
Use one example to describe how material substitution may be used to conserve the reserves of metal minerals. (2)
named material and use; named alternative material for that use; eg copper (telecoms) cables plastic
copper pipes
plastic
copper (electricity) cables
aluminium
steel/aluminium car panels
plastic/carbon fibre/composite material
Describe a method that may be used to extend the operation of a mine by exploiting low-ore grades.(2)
one suitable method; detail of how it works; eg leachate collection/recycling electrolysis
bacteria
oxidise sulfur/produce acid/acidic solution dissolves metal/copper
large scale mechanisation/named improvemt in technology
economies of scale/cheaper per tonne of material
phtyoremediation/hyperaccumulators/brassicas
absorption of metal
Explain why the exploitation of low ore grades is likely to affect the energy required to extract the metal. (2)
increased energy requirements;
more difficult extraction/processing/time-consuming/more material method
Outline how a change in the economy may cause the cut-off ore grade of a mineral to change. (2)
named factor; correct direction of change; eg more market demand COOG goes down
increased sales price
COOG goes down
Outline methods that may be used to reduce the environmental problems caused by machinery noises. (2)
Acoustic insulation (of machinery);
absorption;baffle mounds/embankments/walls/vegetation;
buffer zone;
reflection/deflection;
operations at less annoying times/time zoning;
maintenance/lubrication of machinery;
transport routes away from sensitive areas;
Outline methods that may be used to reduce the environmental problems caused by dust (2)
Water sprays/sprinklers/bowsers/road washing;
settling/collection;
compaction;vegetation/trees;
overed loads;
filters/face masks/electrostatic precipitator/cyclone separator;
Outline two other ways in which open-cast mining causes more environmental damage than deep mining. (4)
Cause;; linked damage;; [A suitable damage example even if cause incorrect] [A two examples of linked damage to one cause] eg proximity to sensitive areas aesthetics mobility of pollutants
more overburden removed
waste disposal
greater surface disturbance
habitat loss
turbid drainage water
reduced light/photosynthesis/smothering organisms
(spoil) leachate
named toxic material
more/larger spoil heaps
stability/landslides
Describe how a sedimentation lagoon reduces environmental problems. (2)
time/static;
suspended solids/particles settle (in lagoon);
[R sedimentation without reference to particles]
reduces sedimentation/turbidity/light penetration problems (in river);
Describe how tree planting on spoil heaps reduces environmental problems. (2)
root binding/increased interception/wind break/increased OM;
reduced erosion/runoff/dust/landslides/increased stability;
reduced aesthetic impact;
detail of method;
eg hides spoil heap, blends into landscape, mixed age/species structure
Describe how baffle mounds reduces environmental problems. (2)
reflects/deflects/absorbs (sound);
reduced noise/nuisance;
