Literature Flashcards
Vedic Literature - Overview
Vedic literature is the earliest form of Indian literature, composed in Sanskrit and transmitted orally before being written down. It includes the four Vedas, along with associated texts like Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads. These texts form the foundation of Hindu religious and philosophical thought.
The Four Vedas - Structure
Each Veda consists of four parts: 1. Samhitas (Hymns & prayers) | 2. Brahmanas (Ritual explanations) | 3. Aranyakas (Philosophical interpretations) | 4. Upanishads (Spiritual/metaphysical discussions).
Rigveda - The Oldest Veda
Period: c. 1500–1000 BCE | Contents: 1,028 hymns (suktas) in 10 books (mandalas) | Main Deities: Agni (fire), Indra (war), Varuna (cosmic order), and Soma (divine drink) | Significance: Contains ‘Purusha Sukta’, which describes cosmic creation through the sacrifice of the primordial being, Purusha.
Yajurveda - The Ritualistic Veda
Contains prose & verse ritual formulas for sacrifices (yajnas). | Divisions: Krishna (Black) Yajurveda & Shukla (White) Yajurveda | Rituals: Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice), Rajasuya (royal consecration).
Samaveda - The Musical Veda
Composed mainly of Rigvedic hymns, but arranged musically for chanting during rituals. | Significance: Considered the foundation of Indian classical music | Priests who sang these hymns were called: Udgataras.
Atharvaveda - The Practical & Magical Veda
Contains hymns on medicine, magic, exorcism, and daily life. | Includes spells for healing diseases, prosperity, and protection from evil spirits. | Reflects concerns of common people, unlike the other Vedas which focus on rituals.
Brahmanas (c. 1000–800 BCE)
Prose texts that explain the meaning of Vedic hymns and rituals. | Each Veda has its own Brahmana: Rigveda → Aitareya & Kaushitaki Brahmana, Yajurveda → Shatapatha Brahmana (most detailed), Samaveda → Tandya Mahabrahmana, Atharvaveda → Gopatha Brahmana.
Aranyakas (c. 800–600 BCE) – The ‘Forest Texts’
Served as a transition between ritualism (Brahmanas) & philosophy (Upanishads). | Written for hermits & ascetics in forests. | Discusses symbolism of rituals rather than their performance.
Upanishads (c. 800–500 BCE) – The Philosophical Texts
Focus on spiritual knowledge (jnana) rather than rituals. | Over 200 Upanishads, but 13 are considered principal, including: Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Katha, Mandukya. | Discuss concepts like Brahman (universal reality), Atman (self), Karma, and Moksha.
Vedangas – The Auxiliary Sciences (c. 600–300 BCE)
To understand the Vedas, six auxiliary disciplines developed: 1. Shiksha (Phonetics) | 2. Chandas (Meter) | 3. Vyakarana (Grammar - Panini’s Ashtadhyayi) | 4. Nirukta (Etymology - Yaska) | 5. Kalpa (Rituals - includes Dharma Sutras) | 6. Jyotisha (Astronomy & Astrology).
Women in Vedic Age
Women had a respected role in Vedic society. Some hymns are attributed to female sages like Gargi and Maitreyi.
Impact of Vedic Literature on Hinduism
Concepts of Dharma, Karma, and Moksha shaped later Hindu philosophy. | Influenced Smriti texts like Manusmriti & Puranas.
Comparison of the Four Vedas
Rigveda | Hymns & Deities | Oldest, Purusha Sukta | |
Yajurveda | Rituals | Sacrificial formulas | |
Samaveda | Music & Chanting | Basis of classical music | |
Atharvaveda | Magic & Medicine | Spells & healing rituals |
Sangam Literature - Overview
Sangam literature is the oldest Tamil literary tradition, composed between 300 BCE – 300 CE in ancient Tamilakam (modern Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and parts of Sri Lanka). It reflects the history, culture, society, and values of early Tamil civilization.
Meaning of ‘Sangam’
The term ‘Sangam’ means ‘academy’, referring to gatherings of poets and scholars. Tamil tradition speaks of three Sangams held in Madurai under Pandya kings.
Three Sangams & Their Contributions
- First Sangam – Mythical, texts lost. | 2. Second Sangam – Partially lost, only Tolkappiyam survives. | 3. Third Sangam – Most surviving works come from this period.
Major Themes in Sangam Literature
Divided into two broad categories: 1. Aham (Love Poetry) – Personal emotions, relationships. | 2. Puram (Heroic Poetry) – Wars, kings, valor.
Classification of Sangam Texts
Divided into Ettuthokai (Eight Anthologies) and Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls).
Ettuthokai (Eight Anthologies)
- Akananuru – 400 love poems. | 2. Purananuru – 400 heroic poems on war & kingship. | 3. Kuruntokai – Short romantic lyrics. | 4. Narrinai – 400 love poems with refined style. | 5. Aingurunuru – 500 poems focused on landscapes. | 6. Paripadal – Devotional poems to Vishnu & Murugan. | 7. Kalithokai – Love poems with mixed poetic meters. | 8. Pathitrupathu – 100 poems praising Chera kings.
Pattuppattu (Ten Idylls)
- Tirumurugarruppadai – Guide to Lord Murugan’s worship. | 2. Malaipadukadam – Mountain kings. | 3. Maduraikanchi – Prosperity of Madurai. | 4. Nedunalvadai – Battle scenes. | 5. Kurinjippattu – Love poetry. | 6. Perumpanarruppatai – Bard guides traveler to a king. | 7. Sirupanarruppatai – Praise of a chieftain. | 8. Mullaippattu – Set in forest region. | 9. Pattinappalai – Describes Kaveripattinam city. | 10. Porunarruppatai – Celebrates warrior life.
Famous Sangam Poets
Notable poets include Kapilar, Avvaiyar, Paranar, Nakkirar. Many poems were attributed to female poets like Avvaiyar, highlighting women’s role in literature.
Tolkappiyam - First Tamil Grammar
Written by Tolkappiyar, it defines Tamil grammar, phonetics, and poetic styles. It is the only surviving work from the Second Sangam.
Tinai System - Sangam Landscape Poetry
Sangam poems are categorized based on landscapes (Tinai), each linked to specific emotions and themes: 1. Kurinji (Mountains) – Secret love. | 2. Mullai (Forests) – Waiting for lover. | 3. Marutham (Plains) – Domestic love. | 4. Neythal (Seashore) – Separation. | 5. Paalai (Desert) – Hardships, exile.
Social Insights from Sangam Literature
- Polity: Describes Chera, Chola, Pandya kings, minor chieftains & democratic assemblies. | 2. Trade: Mentions Roman coins, spice trade, & ports (Muziris, Kaveripattinam). | 3. Women: Highlights courageous queens, poets like Avvaiyar, and devoted wives.
Religion in Sangam Age
Sangam texts mention Murugan, Vishnu, Siva, and village deities. Tirumurugarruppadai is the first Tamil devotional poem, dedicated to Lord Murugan.
Influence and Legacy of Sangam Literature
- Later Epics: Silappadikaram & Manimekalai were inspired by Sangam texts. | 2. Still Studied & Performed: Continues to be an integral part of Tamil heritage and culture.
Buddhist and Jain Literature - Overview
Buddhist and Jain texts played a significant role in shaping Indian religious, philosophical, and literary traditions. These texts, written in Pali, Prakrit, and Sanskrit, include scriptures, biographies, philosophy, and moral stories.
Tripitaka (Three Baskets) - Core Buddhist Canon
The Tripitaka (Pali Canon) is the most sacred Buddhist scripture, divided into three parts: 1. Vinaya Pitaka (Monastic rules) | 2. Sutta Pitaka (Buddha’s teachings) | 3. Abhidhamma Pitaka (Philosophical analysis).
Vinaya Pitaka – Monastic Rules
Contains rules for Buddhist monks (bhikkhus) and nuns (bhikkhunis). | Patimokkha: A set of 227 rules for monks and 311 for nuns.
Sutta Pitaka – Buddha’s Teachings
- Digha Nikaya – 34 long discourses, including Mahaparinibbana Sutta (on Buddha’s last days). | 2. Majjhima Nikaya – 152 middle-length sermons. | 3. Samyutta Nikaya – Thematic collections. | 4. Anguttara Nikaya – Numerical teachings. | 5. Khuddaka Nikaya – Miscellaneous texts like Dhammapada, Jataka Tales, and Suttanipata.
Abhidhamma Pitaka – Buddhist Philosophy
Explains Buddhist psychology, metaphysics, and logic. It is the most complex part of the Tripitaka.
Mahayana Buddhist Literature
Developed after 1st century CE, these texts introduced new interpretations of Buddhism. | Key Texts: 1. Lotus Sutra – Universal salvation & Bodhisattva path. | 2. Lankavatara Sutra – Consciousness philosophy. | 3. Prajnaparamita Sutras – Concept of emptiness (Shunyata).
Mahayana Avadanas (Moral Stories)
- Divyavadana – Buddhist legends. | 2. Ashokavadana – Legends of Emperor Ashoka’s Buddhist conversion.
Historical & Biographical Buddhist Texts
- Milindapanha – Dialogue between Greek King Menander (Milinda) & Buddhist monk Nagasena. | 2. Buddhacharita (by Ashvaghosha) – First Sanskrit biography of Buddha.
Vajrayana Buddhist Literature (Tantric Buddhism)
Developed around 7th–8th century CE, these texts focus on mantras, rituals, and esoteric teachings. | Key Texts: 1. Guhyasamaja Tantra | 2. Hevajra Tantra.
Jain Literature - Overview
Jain literature was primarily composed in Prakrit (Ardhamagadhi, Sauraseni) and later in Sanskrit, Tamil, and Kannada. It includes Agamas (Canonical texts) and Non-Canonical texts.
Agamas – Jain Canonical Texts
The Jain scriptures, known as Agamas, contain Mahavira’s teachings and are divided into Angas (limbs) and Upangas (sub-sections).
Angas – Main Jain Texts
- Acharanga Sutra – Monastic discipline. | 2. Sutrakritanga – Jain doctrine & philosophy. | 3. Upasaka Dashanga – Rules for lay followers. | 4. Dasavaikalika Sutra – Ethics & spiritual guidance.
Tattvartha Sutra – First Jain Text in Sanskrit
Written by Umasvati, this is the first systematic summary of Jain philosophy in Sanskrit.
Kalpasutra – Jain Monastic History
Written by Bhadrabahu, it contains the biography of Mahavira and early Jain monastic history.
Jain Epics and Historical Texts
- Paumachariyam (by Vimalasuri) – Jain version of Ramayana. | 2. Trishashtishalakapurusha Charita (by Hemachandra) – Stories of 63 great Jain personalities.
Tamil Jain Literature
- Civaka Cintamani (by Tirutakkadevar) – Jain epic. | 2. Silappadikaram (by Ilango Adigal) – Jain-influenced Tamil epic. | 3. Naladiyar – Jain ethical poetry.
Comparison of Buddhist & Jain Literature
Feature | Buddhism | Jainism | Language | Pali, Sanskrit | Prakrit, Sanskrit |
| Main Texts | Tripitaka, Mahayana Sutras | Agamas, Tattvartha Sutra |
| Focus | Buddha’s teachings, Nirvana | Mahavira’s teachings, Ahimsa |
| Style | Dialogues, sermons, Jataka tales | Rules, biographies, epics |
Influence of Buddhist & Jain Literature
- Preserved ancient Indian history, philosophy, and ethics. | 2. Jataka Tales influenced Panchatantra & Aesop’s Fables. | 3. Jain scholars contributed to grammar (Panini), astronomy (Aryabhata), and logic (Dignaga).
Classical Sanskrit Literature - Overview
Classical Sanskrit literature flourished after the Vedic and Epic periods, covering poetry, drama, prose, philosophy, and scientific texts. It reflects India’s rich artistic, intellectual, and cultural traditions.
Major Categories of Classical Sanskrit Literature
Divided into:
1. Poetry & Kavya (Epic & Lyric Poetry) | 2. Drama (Natya) & Theatre |
3. Prose (Gadya) – Chronicles & Fables|
4. Religious & Philosophical Literature | 5. Scientific & Technical Literature.
Kalidasa - Greatest Sanskrit Poet & Dramatist
Kalidasa’s works are known for elegance, emotion, and nature descriptions. His major works:
1. Raghuvamsha – Story of the Raghu dynasty (including Rama). |
2. Kumarasambhava – Birth of Kartikeya. |
3. Meghaduta – Romantic poem about a yaksha sending a message through a cloud.
Other Major Poets in Classical Sanskrit Literature
- Bharavi (6th Century CE) – Kiratarjuniya (Shiva giving weapons to Arjuna). |
- Magha (8th Century CE) – Shishupalavadha (Krishna slaying Shishupala). |
- Bilhana (12th Century CE) – Vikramankadevacharita (Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI). |
- Jayadeva (12th Century CE) – Gita Govinda (Krishna-Radha love poem).
Sanskrit Drama & Theatre
Sanskrit drama was highly refined, based on Bharata’s Natyashastra (Theatre Treatise, 2nd century BCE–2nd century CE).
Kalidasa’s Dramas
- Abhijnanashakuntalam – Based on Mahabharata’s Shakuntala story, most famous Sanskrit play. | 2. Vikramorvashiyam – Love story of King Pururavas & nymph Urvashi. | 3. Malavikagnimitram – Court drama about love.
Other Notable Sanskrit Dramas
- Bhasa (3rd Century CE) – 13 plays, including Svapnavasavadatta. |
- Sudraka (4th–5th Century CE) – Mrichchhakatika (romantic drama of Charudatta & courtesan Vasantasena). |
- Vishakhadatta (6th–7th Century CE) – Mudrarakshasa (Chandragupta Maurya & Chanakya’s strategy).
Prose Literature - Historical Chronicles & Fables
Sanskrit prose evolved into biographies, chronicles, and fables. |
1. Banabhatta (7th Century CE) – Harshacharita (biography of Harsha) & Kadambari (romantic novel). |
2. Dandin (7th–8th Century CE) – Dashakumaracharita (Adventures of Ten Princes). |
3. Subandhu (7th Century CE) – Vasavadatta (romantic prose).
Puranas - Hindu Mythological Texts
Puranas combine history, cosmology, and mythology. |
18 Major Puranas, including Vishnu Purana, Shiva Purana, Bhagavata Purana.
Dharmashastra - Ancient Hindu Law Codes
- Manusmriti (c. 200 BCE – 200 CE) – Hindu law text. |
- Yajnavalkya Smriti (3rd–5th Century CE) – Later legal code.
Darshanas - Six Hindu Philosophical Schools
- Nyaya (Logic) – Gautama’s Nyayasutras. |
- Vaisheshika (Atomism) – Kanada’s Vaisheshika Sutras. |
- Samkhya (Dualism) – Kapila’s Samkhya Karika. |
- Yoga – Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras. |
- Vedanta – Shankara’s Advaita Vedanta (8th Century CE). |
- Mimamsa (Ritual Philosophy) – Jaimini’s Mimamsa Sutras.
Scientific & Technical Sanskrit Literature
Sanskrit was used in science, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and linguistics.
Linguistics & Grammar
- Panini (5th Century BCE) – Ashtadhyayi (Sanskrit grammar). | 2. Patanjali (2nd Century BCE) – Mahabhashya (Grammar commentary).
Mathematics & Astronomy
- Aryabhata (5th Century CE) – Aryabhatiya (Zero, Pi). |
- Varahamihira (6th Century CE) – Brihatsamhita (Astronomy).
Medicine (Ayurveda)
- Charaka (1st–2nd Century CE) – Charaka Samhita (Medicine & internal medicine). |
- Sushruta (1st–3rd Century CE) – Sushruta Samhita (Surgery, plastic surgery techniques).
Influence of Classical Sanskrit Literature
- Shaped Indian drama, poetry, philosophy, and sciences. |
- Later Hindu texts (e.g., Bhagavata Purana) drew inspiration from earlier works. |
- Spread to Southeast Asia, influencing Khmer, Javanese, and Balinese traditions.
