lit theory: prose Flashcards
fiction
purpose, take-away
- a figment of the author’s imagination
- purpose: aesthetic, inspirational, entertaining, insightful
- take-away: theme, moral, lesson
- the reader must infer what’s going on
nonfiction
purpose, text features, take-away
- true
- purpose: informative, explanation, educational, instructive
- text features: index, charts, graphs, photos, headings
- take-away: information, directions
- the reader is given direct information
recurring structural characterisitcs in any narration
- story
- time
- space
- character
story vs plot
story = chronological sequence of events
plot = literary device, the sequence and significance of events in a story; the blueprint on which a story is based
plot structure
Freytag’s pyramid
- Exposition ⇒ the beginning of the story, introduction to the characters, setting, plot
- Rising action ⇒ the plot develops, characters are in a state of conflict
- Climax ⇒ turning point of the story, conflict reaches its highest point (shortly before the end)
- Falling action ⇒ brief, result of the climax
- Denouement (resolution) ⇒ story is resolved
types of plot
- Quest ⇒ a call to a journey with a purpose, thrilling ordeals and a triumphant ending
- Comedy ⇒ to make the audience laugh about the nature of life
- Tragedy ⇒ a work that shows how life can be sad and unjust
- Rebirth ⇒ the main character goes through a change and discovers a truth by which to live a more fruitful life
- Rags to riches ⇒ improvement of a character from a lower, deprived state of living to a more enlightened and wealthy position in society
- Overcoming the monster ⇒ threatening a predator
- Voyage and redemption ⇒ main characters end up in a strange place and have to find a way home
setting
- = the time and place where and when the story takes place
- outdoor and indoor scenery
- details about how characters behave, dress, … ⇒ add to the social setting of the story
- internal context ⇒ the entire physical and emotional backdrop of where and when a story takes place
functions of setting
- mirror ⇒ to what degree the setting reflects the values of the real world, acts as social commentary
- mould ⇒ how the characters of a story are shaped by the world they inhabit
- escape ⇒ the setting may represent an escape from our own reality in order to reflect and comment on the reality of the author and/or reader
- alienation ⇒ the degree to which characters feel alienated from society
function of characters
more like kinds of characters, roles they play
- main ⇒ the most important character, whose story we follow
- secondary ⇒ support the main character, less developed than the main character
- protagonist = the main character who propels the story towards a certain goal
- antagonist = stands in the way of the protagonist, preventing them from achieving that goal
- round (complex) ⇒ a fully developed, psychologically believable character that undergoes development
- flat (static) ⇒ a character built around one main idea
- foil = a character whose qualities contrast those of the main character in order to expose them to the reader
- antihero = the protagonist who lacks the traditional heroic qualities of bravery, courage, morality, and the special ability and desire to achieve for the greater good
- stock = a one-dimensional stereotypical character, often included to make a point or represent an idea, rather than a realistic portrayal of a person
elements of characterization
- name
- physical appearance
- dialogue ⇒ what people say and in what way defines them
- characters’ idiolect ⇒ all speakers use language in a unique way to them (using particular words, phrases, pronunciation, grammatical structures)
- actions and behaviour ⇒ what characters do and how they behave in certain situations defines them
- thoughts ⇒ characters are brought to life when the author gives us insight into their minds and way of thinking
- setting and character ⇒ the setting usually reflects internal aspects of the characters
thoughts in plays and prose
plays: soliloquy, monologue, aside
prose: kinds of narration
character arc / development / transformation
= the transformation or journey of a character over the course of a story (the character begins as one sort of person and gradually transforms into a different sort of person as a consequence of developments in the story)
types of character arcs
- moral ascending ⇒ overcoming flaws
- moral descending ⇒ protagonists do not ultimately succeed, ending up worse off than in the beginning (the change is inherently negative, evil)
- flat ⇒ a character does not undergo any personal changes in their journey (more focused on the outcome of the plot)
- transformation ⇒ becoming a more capable version of themselves by gaining remarkable skills, power, wealth, climbing the social ladder
internal vs external conflict
Internal ⇒ within a character’s mind
External ⇒ a character battles forces outside of them (another person, nature, …)
types of conflict
- individual vs society
- one individual vs another
- individual vs circumstances that are out of the characters’ control (war, natural disasters, epidemic, aliens, …)
- individual vs himself
conflict: individual vs society
- characters as victims of their time and place (setting), allowing authors to comment on the unjust principles of contemporary society
- the main character shows the contrast between two value systems
- external conflict
conflict: one individual vs another
- one character is pitted against another
- characters usually embody abstract ideas
- external conflict
conflict: individual vs himself
inner conflicts, fear of failure, quest for self, …
people often identify with a character that represents the person’s own shortcomings
theme
def, stated?
= the central topic of a text
oftentimes, several themes coexist
implied, rather than stated explicitly, often through the use of symbols and motifs
motif vs symbol
- motif = any recurring element that has significance in a story
- symbol = characters, places or objects used to represent abstract ideas
- motifs can take on symbolic significance and become symbols, but not every symbol can be a motif
narrator vs narrative voice
Narrator = a literary construct, through which author speaks to their readers
Narrative voice = the manner in which the story is told
what does narrative voice consist of
- narrator’s POV
- narration
- speech
- tense
narrator’s POV
- first person (eye witness)
- second person
- third person
- multiperspectivity
first person narrator POV
- usually through the protagonist whose inner thoughts are expressed to the audience, creating a close relationship between the narrator and reader
- limited omniscience is not able to witness or understand all facets of any situation and gives a subjective account of events ⇒ the narrator is unreliable due to limited experience, age, intellectual capacity and hidden agendas
- often in coming of age novels since they focus on the growth and development of the protagonist
- frame narrator ⇒ the narrator’s own thoughts that we hear but a narration of someone else’s story
- to provide direct insight into the mind of a character, which may give a biased or unreliable account of events which is done by creating a stream of consciousness
stream of conciousness
= a method of narration that describes happenings in the flow of thoughts in the minds of the characters
second person narrative POV
better to instructional texts
turns the reader into a protagonist, allowing the reader to feel that they are in control of the story
third person POV
the narrator is an unspecified entity who conveys the story, is not a character of any kind within the story — simply a disembodied commentary or voice
differentiation of narrator POV
- omniscient vs limited narration
- objective vs subjective narration
- unreliable vs reliable
unreliable vs reliable narration
unreliable ⇒ not to be fully trusted due to age, mental or intellectual capacity, hidden agendas, limited experience, …
reliable ⇒ speaking from experience in a straightforward and credible manner
omniscient vs limited narration
omniscient ⇒ knows everything about everyone, how they think, what the future holds for them
limited ⇒ the story follows just one character, important events in the story may happen off-scene (may initially be unknown to characters, the narrator)
objective vs subjective narration
objective (fly on the wall) ⇒ the reader observes characters’ actions like a camera
subjective ⇒ readers are subjected to a biased account of events that are partial to one character
multiperspectivity
alternating voice between first-person perspectives or alternating between first and third person point of views
narration
what does it tell, kinds
- Direct narration ⇒ directly to the audience reading it, sometimes utilizing the second person
- Frame narration ⇒ the narrator is an outsider to the events that unfold or is directed from one character to another (a story within a story)
- Indirect narration ⇒ the reader is a witness to the story as if watching it happen from the outside, telling the story for the sake of it
the person the narrator is speaking to
kinds of speech
- direct (quoted) speech
- indirect (reported) speech
- free indirect speech
direct (quoted) speech
- characters speak for themselves
- indicated with the use of quotation marks
- often found in indirect narration
- the reader makes conclusions about what the character said independently
indirect (reported) speech
- ⇒ the narrator summarises spoken interaction without the use of quotation marks
- the reader relies on the narrator to summarise the content of speech
- often in direct narration
free indirect speech
- ⇒ writing a character’s first-person thoughts in the voice of the third party narrator
- no obvious indications of speech (f.i. “he said”)
- enables the reader to empathise with the protagonist while giving a sense of an objective point of view
tenses in narration
- Past tense ⇒ used to describe past events: hindsight, wisdom, flashbacks
- Present tense ⇒ used to depict events occurring at the point of reading
- Dramatic (historical) present ⇒ used to describe past events by adding a dramatic tone (written in the present tense, concerning events that happened in the past)
- Future tense ⇒ used infrequently and may lend a prophetic tone
register
= a type of language defined in terms of its appropriateness for the type of activity or context in which the language is used, including the purpose, audience and situation/context in which the text is created
kinds of sentences
- Simple sentences ⇒ only one main clause; used for younger audiences and emphasises a need for clarity
- Compound sentences ⇒ with coordinating conjunctions like “and” and “but”
- Complex sentences ⇒ with subordinating conjunctions like “when”, “after”, “although” and “if”; used to explain more difficult relationships and ideas
imagery
def
= the use figurative language to represent objects, actions, and ideas in such a way that it evokes sensory experiences
kinds of imagery
- kinaesthetic ⇒ actions and movements of people and objects
- tactile ⇒ physical textures, sense of touch
- gustatory ⇒ flavours, sense of taste
- visual ⇒ graphics, visual scenes, sense of sight
- auditory ⇒ sounds, noises, sense of hearing
- olfactory ⇒ sense of smell
literal vs figurative language
literal ⇒ meant to be taken literally
figurative ⇒ not meant to be taken literally and therefore creates a more imaginative picture for the reader (similes, metaphors, personification)
ways of literary criticism
- formalism
- reader-response criticism
- historical-bibliographical criticism
- psychoanalytical literary criticism
- marxist social criticism
- feminist literary criticism
formalism
- argues that we should analyse, interpret, or evaluate only the inherent features of a text (grammar, syntax, literary devices)
- neglects the importance of a text’s historical, biographical, and cultural context
- a work of art is complete in itself and that one should interpret it in isolation from the socio-historical context in which it was created
- neglects the author’s intention and the reader’s contribution to the text’s interpretation
reader-response criticism
- literature should be viewed as a performing art in which each reader creates their own, possibly unique, text-related performance (interpretation)
- each reader’s interpretation of the text will be influenced by that reader’s experience, history, knowledge, beliefs, …
- encourages critical analysis and close reading
- important contextual information is ignored
historical-bibliographical criticism
- a work is a reflection of its author’s life and time ⇒ one must understand:
- the socio-cultural and historical circumstances in which the text was written and that influenced the author
- the author’s life biographical details that influenced the literary work
- new and modern interpretations of old texts are discounted
- allows for greater contextual understanding
psychoanalytical literary criticism
- draws on the works Sigmund Freud
- analysis of texts, revealing the internal conflicts of the author and characters, which are supposed to embody suppressed emotions
- texts are full of symbols that represent our subconscious, fears, anxieties
- storylines reflect battles between the Id (our animalistic urges) and the Ego, Superego (our self-regulating habits)
marxist social criticism
- draws on the works of Karl Marx
- to understand any literary text, one must analyse the economic base of the society it was written in
- how literature reflects the social structure of the society that created the work
feminist literary criticism
analyses and describes the ways in which literature portrays the narrative of male domination by exploring the economic, social, political, and psychological forces embedded within literature
