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SFU- Semester 2 > Ling 360: Midterm #1 > Flashcards

Ling 360: Midterm #1 Flashcards

0
Q

Property vs transition theory

A

Property theory: modelling the nature of the language system that is to be acquired
Transition theory: modelling the change and developmental processes of language acquisition; can be general or look at a specific stage

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1
Q

Theory

A

Abstract set of claims about the entities which are significant within the phenomenon under study, their relationships and the processes that bring about change (aims for description and explanation)
Should be testable and falsifiable
Engagement with other theories in the field

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2
Q

Main criticisms of research for SLL

A
  • too much focus on individual, not enough on sociocultural influences
  • research too broad (Long)
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3
Q

Chomsky’s argument about grammar and meaning?

A

They are independent

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4
Q

Firths claim about grammar and lexis

A

They are independent

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5
Q

What is an imperfect reflection of competence and why?

A

Language performance data because language production has many mistakes

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6
Q

Can language competence be studied directly? What tests can we use?

A

Only indirectly through sentence-completion, eye tracking and grammaticality judgement tests (sample sentences to which they say are grammatical or not)

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7
Q

Firths opinion on performance and competence

A

He says they are not separate and the only option is to study language in use

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8
Q

Formalist vs functionalist models of language

A

Formalist: language is made up of elements that are combined by sets of rules or procedures (semantics is part of this)
Functionalist: research and theorizing must start with the communicative functions of a language; trying to explain the structure of language as a reflection of meaning making

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9
Q

Chomsky vs others (language target)

A

Chomsky: assumption that native speaker competence provides a single target for L2 development
Others: variability within native speaker language usage, no specific target (just lingua Franca)

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10
Q

Interlanguage

A

L2 as its own language system, not a copy of the TL (in between in transition to native like target)

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11
Q

skinner vs Chomsky in the language learning process

A

Skinner: language taught to children using same learning mechanisms as learning anything else (aka behaviourist theory of learning by repetition and reward)
Chomsky: said human language too complex to be learning completely from performance data, we must have innate abilities (aka universal grammar)

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12
Q

Universal grammar created by

A

Chomsky

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13
Q

Modular vs unitary views of cognition

A

Modular: bundles of modules that are responsible for different types of knowledge ex: language module (Chomsky)
Unitary: brain is a single flexible organism with one general set of procedures for learning and storing knowledge (Piaget)

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14
Q

The four different possibilities of distinctive learning mechanisms exist

A

1- make L2 learning possible in the same way that L1 learning is done (Krashen in the 1970s)
2- after acquiring the L1 in early childhood this mechanism stops working and L2s must be learned by other means
3- mechanism no longer available but L2 can be learned by copying model of natural language
4- mechanisms still available but only partially and must be helped by other means (in case of UG, some modules available and others not)

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15
Q

Information processing perspective of language learning

A

JR. Anderson

Declarative vs procedural forms of knowledge

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16
Q

Connectionism

A

Associative (neo behaviourist) theory that have been revived; statistical learning
Absorption of statistical regularities in environment through implicit learning mechanisms)

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17
Q

How were errors viewed in L2 learning in the mid twentieth century?

A

Under influence of behaviourist learning theory, errors were viewed as consequences of bad habits which could be fixed by repetition activities like pattern drilling

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18
Q

Developmental stages of language learning

A

Primitive like L2 towards target like L2
For example, development of negative particle (first putting it at the beginning of sentence, then inserted into verb phrase, then learn negation morphology
Therefore L2 learning follows a common route with diff speeds for everyone (systematicity)

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19
Q

Three main characteristics of Interlanguage

A

Systematicity
Variability
Creativity

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20
Q

Word for a memorizing chunk

A

Formulaic sequence

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21
Q

Fossilization

A

Stabilizing an alternative language system (errors) that cannot be changed, no matter how much practice

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22
Q

When goal of native fluency not reached

A

Incomplete success

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23
Q

Two explanations for incomplete success

A

1- pyscholinguistic: learning mechanisms that children use are no longer available or partially unavailable and no amount of effort can recreate them
2- sociolinguistic: older L2 learners don’t have the social opportunities or motivation to identify with native speaker community and instead value their own identity as learners (lingua Franca)

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24
Q

Language transfer and how it was viewed in the 60s/70s compared to now
UG perspective on this?

A

Behaviourists 1950s/60s= transfer important as bad habits
Interlanguage 1970s= downplayed transfer, focus on creativity
UG perspective: direct access=L1 only has peripheral influence but indirect access= L1 influence is key

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25
Q

Krashens belief of input (80s)

A

Input is all that is necessary for L2 learning

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26
Q

Two types of variability

A

Within the learner: using grammatically correct and incorrect utterances interchangeably for a period of time
Across different learners: due to type of instruction, learners L1, individual differences

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27
Q

What’s it called when learners make use of memorized, unanalyzed utterances

A

Routines or prefabrication

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28
Q

Acquisition of grammatical competence includes 4 areas

A

L2 phonology, syntax, morphology and vocab

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29
Q

Describe acquisition of L2 phonology

A

Adult L2 speech is accented as a result of phonetic transfer from their L1

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30
Q

Describe L2 syllabication

A

Languages vary in the type of syllable structure they permit

Ex: english allows consonant clusters in onset and coda position

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31
Q

What is stress assignment

A

L2 learners must learn stress patterns of the new language

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32
Q

Positive vs negative evidence

A

Positive evidence= hearing grammatical utterances

Negative evidence= not hearing anyone say something a certain way, thus deeming it ungrammatical

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33
Q

What do english learners learn first, ing or ed?

A

Ing

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34
Q

Four aspects of communicative competence

A

Grammatical (grammar knowledge) textual (how sentences link together), illocutionary (understanding intent or function of utterance), and sociolinguistic (knowing how to use it in a social context)

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35
Q

Critical period

A

Particular time frame in which learners have to be exposed to the language to have a fully successful acquisition process
Before age 7= native
Between= variation
After 14= not native

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36
Q

Why do younger learners need less effort to learn a language?

A

Changes in brain
Learning style (intuitive vs analytical)
Inhibition

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37
Q

What’s earlier: critical period for grammar or pronunciation?

A

Pronunciation

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38
Q

Who’s has more initial speed in learning, younger or older?

A

Older

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39
Q

Cognitive vs affective factors in L2 learning

A 
Cognitive= mechanics of learning so aptitude and learning strategies 
Affective= emotional side of learning so language attitudes, motivation, confidence, anxiety, willingness to communicate
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40
Q

What is language aptitude and what test can test it

A

It’s a gift for second language learning (different from general intelligence)
MLAT (modern language aptitude test)
Tests phonetic coding ability, grammatical sensitivity, inductive language learning ability and associative memory abilities

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41
Q

Six types of language learning strategies and examples for each

A 
Memory strategy (creating mental images) 
Cognitive strategy (practice) 
Compensation strategy (adjusting the message)
Metacognitive strategy (setting goals)
Affective strategy (rewards) 
Social strategy (asking for clarification)
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42
Q

Two main types of motivation

A 
Integrative= open and accepting attitude towards the L2 language community
Instrumental= concrete benefits like a job
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43
Q

Field dependant vs field independent

A

Field independent= see details without being distracted by big picture; better at grammar accuracy tests but slow/bad rhythm during speech
Field dependant= more focus on big picture; better at fluency tests but bad grammar

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44
Q

What is the recent turn in SLA research?

A

Looking at L2 learner as a social being, sociolinguistic factors (not just psycholinguistic or individualist perspective)

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45
Q

Describe SLA research in the 50s and 60s

A

Structuralism
Learning spoken L2 meant acquiring appropriate speech habits
Graded syllabus of structural patterns to ensure step by step systematic process
Grammar taught through presentation and practice
Errors should be avoided through practice and rehearsal
Tied to behaviourism (dominant mainstream learning theory at the time)

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46
Q

Behaviourism

A

Learning= formation of habits
Repeated reinforcement causes a certain stimulus to create the same response every time, making a habit
Says that the more similar the structure to your L1, the easier to learn
Teaching= practice makes perfect, drilling, focus on Contrastive Analysis

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47
Q

Contrastive analysis (CA)

A

Comparing properties of L1/L2 to see where difficulties may be found
Popular approach in 60s and 70s
Contrastive analysis hypothesis:
Strong= result of comparison predicts areas of difficult (no longer valid)
Weak= comparison can be used to help understand some Interlanguage errors

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48
Q

Inductive vs deductive learning

A

Inductive- students get many examples and figure out how the concept works based on that (specific to general)
Deductive- teacher explains concept and students practice it (general to specific)

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49
Q

6 learner processes (contrastive analysis)

A

Transfer=no difference (many sounds found in both languages)
Coalescence=two forms in L1 but one in L2 (shade and shadow have one german word)
Under differentiation=item found in L1 but not in L2 (I am playing/I play= same sentence in german aka no aspect)
Reinterpretation=item from L1 used differently in L2 (how are you needs no answer in one language but needs answer in English)
Over differentiation=item not found in L1 but found in L2 (nouns have gender in L2 but not L1)
Split=one form in L1 but two in L2 (to know has two words in german)

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50
Q

Chomsky’s critique of behaviourism

A 
Creativity of language (children don't copy, they produce utterances that they've never heard and they internalize rules not strings)
Platos problem (poverty of stimulus aka some things like reflexive pronouns cannot be learned just from receiving input)
Children are usually corrected on the truth of their utterances and not grammar
51
Q

Describe first language acquisition L1A in the 70s

A

Striking similarities between L1A no matter what the language
Children all over the world go through similar stages aka make the same errors and use similar constructions
For specific Ls, pattern of acquisition was found (ex: morpheme studies in L1 by Roger Brown)

52
Q

Two comments about children’s language emergence

A

Children don’t simply imitate at speech, they learn rules even if the rules do not correspond to rules of adult grammar
They are not susceptible to adult correction

53
Q

Three problems with Contrastive Analysis

A

Constructions that were the same in both languages were not necessarily easy to grasp
Constructions that were different were not necessarily difficult
Sometimes only difficulty in one direction ( english to French) but not the other way around (French to english)

54
Q

Error analysis

A

Systematic investigation of L2 errors

Corder 1967

55
Q

The term Interlanguage was coined by who

A

Selinker

56
Q

Morpheme studies in the 70s

A

Both child and adult learners of L2 english develop accuracy in certain grammatical morphemes in a set order no matter where or how they are learning

57
Q

Critique of morpheme studies

A

Elicitation technique could cause bias in the results

Debatable whether the accuracy of production is equal to acquisition sequences

58
Q

1970s findings (3)

A

Interlanguage is systematic
Interlanguage is independent of the L1 (guided by internal principles which are independent of the L1, renders Contrastive analysis useless)
L2A has many similarities with L1A but also differences

59
Q

Describe Krashen’s Monitor Model from the 80s

A

Influential first try at bringing together post-behaviourist findings into one model of SLA
Many of the specific ideas are no longer supported but he inspired a lot of research
Made up of five basic hypotheses:
The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis= two ways of developing language ability; one is subconscious acceptance of knowledge is stored in the brain through the use of communication which is the process for developing a native language, learning on the other hand is conscious acceptance of information about a language therefore natural communication is the best way to learn
The Monitor Hypothesis= our leaning system can monitor our utterances and inspect/correct them but this can be bad because it causes too much focus on accuracy when we just need fluency
The Natural Order Hypothesis= learners learn parts of language in a specific order and teachers cannot change this
The Input Hypothesis= language acquisition occurs when people receive input they can understand aka comprehensible input; should be i+1 of their current knowledge to challenge them
The Affective-filter hypothesis= affective filter, which can be prompted by anxiety/stress/motivation/confidence, can be a wall that can prevent learning

60
Q

Critiques of the five hypotheses of Krashen’s Monitor Model

A

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: vague definition of conscious vs subconscious as they are difficult to test in practice AND he says learning cannot turn into acquisition (learning cannot all be unified)
The Monitor Hypothesis: no evidence of actual monitor use
The Natural Order Hypothesis: represents 1970s theories and has no place for language transfer or cross-linguistic influence AND doesn’t explain WHY
The Input Hypothesis: vague; how do we determine level i and level i+1?
The Affective Filter Hypothesis: vague and doesn’t explain how it actually works

61
Q

What was the main weakness of Krashen’s Monitor model

A

He just presented hypotheses, still needed to be tested as a comprehensive model to see if it had empirical validity and pedagogical implications

62
Q

Two main Hypotheses of the 1980s

A

1980s=turning point, rise of Chomsky analysis
Interaction hypothesis= NS and NNS interactions are rich in meaning negotiation and this makes speech more understandable
Output hypothesis= only output really makes learners do deep grammatical processing and effectively develops their syntax and morphology

63
Q

Five fundamental questions of issues in SLA

A
  • the role of internal mechanisms (language specific and cognitive)
  • the role of L1 (cross linguistic influence)
  • the role of psychological variables (such as learner differences)
  • the role of social/environmental factors
  • the role of L2 input
64
Q

Timeline of four important early events in SLA

A

1959- Chomsky’s review of Skinners stimulus response reinforcement views
1967- Corder (the significance of learner errors)
1972- Selinker Interlanguage
1981- Krashen monitor model

65
Q

General vs Special Nativist Theory

A

Nativist approach= at least some aspects of language learning involve innate ness
General nativism= no specific mechanism for language learning but general principles of learning
Special nativism= special principles just for language learning (includes UG)

66
Q

Two assumptions of UG-based theories

A
  • human beings have a specific capacity for language learning
  • this capacity is innate and biologically determined
67
Q

Universal Grammar Approach (generative linguistics approach)

A

Most influential theory in ling
Many theoretical and empirical publications
Property (not transition) theory
Mainly concerned with abstract mental representation of L not with performance
Views L as an inherited set of abstract principles and parameters which constrain the shape the Ls can take
-core of L is the lexicon

68
Q

Principle vs parameter

A 
Principle= no variation and apply to all Ls
Parameters= variation is what leads to differences between Ls
69
Q

What is the logical problem of language learning?

A

The gap between knowledge and experience (even though languages are very complex and children receive messy input, they are still able to create a mental representation of L that goes beyond the input they receive (Platos problem, poverty of stimulus argument)

70
Q

7 arguments for UG from first language acquisition

A

1- children go through developmental stages
2- stages are similar in same L1
3- stages similar across languages
4- L1 is rule governed and systematic
5- children are resistant to correction
6- L1 learning requires mastering complex and abstract knowledge
7- L1A not linked to general intelligence

71
Q

Proof in brain that L is separate from other cognitive faculties

A

Broca’s aphasia (dis fluent) and wernickes aphasia (fluent but meaningless)

72
Q

Characteristics of innate language faculty as a biological triggered behaviour

A 
Emerges before it's necessary 
Not result of conscious decision
Not triggered by external events 
Direct teaching has little effect
Regular sequence of milestones 
May be a critical period
73
Q

What is the task of L2 learners in SLA that has to do with UG

A

Identify which syntactic categories are required in the L2

74
Q

Evidence for UG in L1A

A
  • evidence that children set the head parameter as early as the two word stage
  • evidence that children acquire parametric variation in functional features in cluster like fashion
75
Q

Current debates in role of UG in SLA

A
  • is UG available? To what extent? (Which parts of UG not just UG in general)
  • what’s the make up of Initial State (subconscious linguistic representations of L2 learners when they first start learning L2)
  • why do learners stop short of ultimate attainment (L2 grammar less stable, Critical Period Hypothesis)
  • role of interfaces (Interface Hypothesis)
76
Q

Full vs partial vs no access Hypotheses

A

Full access= UG fully available, differences in patterns of acquisition between L1 and L2 accounted for in diff ways
Partial access= UG partially available (only the parameters characterizing the L1 grammar though) the rest must be learned through other learning strategies, UG viewed as modular
No access= totally inaccessible, learning takes place through other strategies, UG researchers usually wouldn’t support this, emergentists would agree bc don’t believe in UG

77
Q

UG is mainly concerned with?

A

Morphosyntax not discourse

78
Q

Three explanations for why outcome of L2 is different than L1

A
  • L1 and basic knowledge about world is already established
  • learners=more mature
  • learning environment and motivations are different
79
Q

Input-Based Emergentist Perspective

A

Views L2 learning as bottom up aka learners use general learning mechanisms to find patterns and structure
Grammatical rules and formal aspects of L emerge through practice and experience, not innate or learned abstractly
Influenced by input and learner factors

80
Q

7 input related factors

A

Frequency (how often does item occur in input)
Salience (how prominent)
Redundancy (essential for conveying meaning or not)
Syllabic (whether morpheme contains syllable)
Allomorphic invariance (different ways of pronouncing a letter)
Exceptions in a way a morpheme is used
Syntactic category

81
Q

Associative learning

A

A learner related factor
Learning to associate a cue with an outcome (form-meaning mapping)
Associative-cognitive CREED (L learning is construction-based, rational, example-driven, emergent and dialectic)
SLA learned through general learning mechanisms

82
Q

Name four form-function units of CREED

A

Lexical
Formulae
Slot and frame
Abstract schemata

83
Q

Describe the rational aspect of CREED

A

L representations of the mind are tuned to predict the linguistic constructions that are most likely relevant in the discourse
Optimal mental models of the way language works bc linguistics experience
Unconscious language representation systems are probability tuned to predict the linguistic constructions that are most relevant

84
Q

Describe exemplar-driven aspect of CREED

A

Learners find regularities from groups of similar constructions

85
Q

Describe emergent aspect of CREED

A

L regularities emerge as learners determine structure from language usage
Knowledge comes from experience

86
Q

Describe dialectic aspect of CREED

A

The learner is affected by their first language and their language environment
Interactions with others help stop aspects of associative learning that cause L2 learning problems

87
Q

Three important aspects of language acquisition according to cognitive approaches

A

Frequency
Salience
Reliability

88
Q

Learned attention

A

Affects associative learning

We only pay attention to what’s necessary

89
Q

Explain attention blocking and overshadowing

A

Associative learning phenomenon of blocking where redundant cues are overshadowed because L1 experience makes learner look elsewhere for clues to interpretation
This causes attention blocking over time

90
Q

What’s the rationale for statistical learning?

A

If a computer can generate patterns similar to a human learners production without pre-programmed linguistic constraints, then learning could also happen by computing statistical properties

91
Q

Describe statistical learning computer models

A

Connectionist computer models (ex: Simple recurrent networks SRNs)
Learns to produce output by processing sentences in its input, specifically designed to take note of co-occurrence relationships or transitional probabilities
SRNs can achieve some milestones associated with L1A

92
Q

Describe the two property based perspectives

A

Processing=online attempt to understand streams of input

Two theories=processability theory by pienemann and efficiency-driven processor by o’grady

93
Q

Describe Pienemann’s processing theory

A

Processability Theory
L acquisition=getting computer like processing skills necessary to process language
Uses Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG) as a theory of grammar
Hierarchy of processing procedures

94
Q

Main points of processing theory

A
  • hierarchy of processing procedures
  • perceptual salience (beginning and end of stimuli are easier to remember)
  • Teachability hypothesis (learners follow rigid route in their acquisition of grammatical structures and they can only operate within their hypothesis space)
95
Q

What are the predictions of the watching hypothesis

A

Stages of acquisition cannot be skipping through formal instruction
Instruction is most beneficial if it focuses on structures from the next stage of what the learner is capable of

96
Q

Is emergentism opposed to nativism?

A

No but it is opposed to grammatical/representational nativism which is the innate grammatical structure view

97
Q

Is learning a language possible without deduced knowledge of rules?

A

Growing evidence says that yes, form-meaning connections can be learned implicitly

98
Q

What is the implicit cognitive view of language

A

L= set of probabilistic patterns which become strengthened in the brain of the learner through repeated activation
Tested with artificial languages
-central element of learning a language is the implicit calculation of statistical properties of L and how they relate to meaning/function
-Working memory capacity influences L2 learning when the learner has awareness of learning
-relevance to classroom research=better to have more input frequency to make certain features salient

99
Q

Cognitive view of the L learner

A

Concerned with the individual as an implicit processor not a social being

100
Q

Key mechanisms that cognitive theory says are important to L2 learning and not to L1

A

Particular memory system (working memory)
Explicit knowledge about L
Skill acquisition
Conscious attention to L form

101
Q

Declarative vs procedure knowledge

A

Declarative knowledge= knowing that something is the case; explicit conscious knowledge (L2 learner)
Procedural knowledge= knowing how to do something, implicit knowledge (children learning native language)

102
Q

Is emergentist/processed based theories implicit or explicit?

A

Implicit
This means that learning is both incidental (learner did not intend to learn the feature) and without awareness
Difficult to test but important to understand

103
Q

Non-interface vs weak vs strong interface position

A

Non-interface position (Krashen’s input hypothesis)= conscious learning about L and subconscious acquisition are two different things and learning cannot be converted into acquisition
Weak interface position= explicit knowledge helps in the perception of L2 form by facilitating the process of noticing aka Schmidt’s noticing hypothesis
Strong interface position= generally not supported as L2 learners may have technical grammar knowledge but cannot communicate fluently or accurately

104
Q

5 roles of explicit knowledge

A

Helps learners to:

  • notice new parts of language
  • put input into parts of speech
  • narrow learners hypothesis space
  • formulate correct output
  • when comprehension fails, remember that problematic string
105
Q

Three stages of learning (explicit Skill Acquisition Theory)

A

Stage 1: cognitive/declarative/presentation
-learners establish new explicit knowledge
-this knowledge goes to working memory and takes effort to maintain
Stage 2: associative/procedural/practice
-knowledge now becomes procedural knowledge as skill is performed
-reduces demands on working memory
-knowledge is prone to restructuring here
Stage 3: autonomous/automatic/production
-practice needs to take place before knowledge can be used quickly and reliably
-prone to errors but difficult to change as its out of attentional control

106
Q

Schmidt’s noticing hypothesis

A

Conscious registration of a form in the input is necessary for L learning to happen (noticing=bringing stimulus into focal attention)
Necessary for input -> intake
Studies suggest that teaching approaches that promote awareness lead to greater learning gains

107
Q

What do learners attend to more: lexicon or Morphosyntax?

A

Lexicon

108
Q

Baddley and Hitch’s WM model

A

Two components:

  • temporary storage of info (short term memory)
  • control of that info, as required to carry out complex tasks (central executive attention)
109
Q

Two ways of measuring WM capacity

A

Reading span task (reading increasingly long articles and saying the final word of each sentence in order)
Non-word repetition task (participants have to repeat nonsense words after hearing them)

110
Q

What are the two beginning hypotheses for interaction?

A

Longs interaction hypothesis= necessary to make adjustments during conversation to obtain L2 input at the right level of difficulty; negotiation of meaning leads to greater problem solving success

Swains Output Hypothesis= learners own productions during L2 convos play important role in noticing/intake of new lang

111
Q

Six types of corrective feedback

A

Explicit correction (learner is clearly told that they made an error and a correct reformation is given)
Recast (teacher says the sentence that the student said again minus their error)
Clarification request (learner is asking to clarify their meaning without telling them that they made an error)
Metalinguistic feedback (asking them to use a grammar rule properly)
Elicitation: learner is asked to re formulate their utterance
Repetition: teacher repeats the learners mistake as a question

112
Q

Describe the revised interaction hypothesis and who created it

A

Long
Environmental contributions to acquisition are controlled by selective attention and learners developing L2 processing capacity
These are brought together most usefully through negotiation for meaning
This negative feedback is great for L2 learning

113
Q

Three parts of study designs for engagement in interaction

A

Pretest
Treatment (control) group
Post test

114
Q

How do skill acquisition theorists see feedback?

A

As making a contribution to the establishment and proceduralization of declarative knowledge

115
Q

Are recasts successful?

A

Very popular but not very successful, prompts are better

116
Q

Output hypothesis and who created it

A

Swain

Only production forces L2 learners to do complete grammatical processing and thus helps syntax and morphology

117
Q

Three functions of learner output

A

Noticing function
Hypothesis testing function
Meta linguistic/reflective function

118
Q

Interactionalist idea of noticing

A

Encouraged noticing helps the leaner see differences between their Interlanguage and the target language during communicative interaction

119
Q

Input vs intake vs uptake

A

Input: everything the learner is exposed to
Intake: everything the learner processes
Uptake: correction by a teacher that’s used by the learner

120
Q

Two difficulties of the interaction hypothesis

A

Difficulty explaining selective attention and can’t point out what aspects of language this will help the most

121
Q

What view did the interaction approach start with and then move away from?

A

Chomsky approach

122
Q

Functionalist theory

A

Gavon Halliday and langacker

Desired meaning determines Interlanguage

123
Q

Thinking for speaking hypothesis

A

Easier to notice patterns that are similar to the L1

124
Q

Satellite vs verb framed languages

A

Satellite framed= english, encode motion and manner in the verb and path in an exterior satellite
Verb framed= french/spanish, encode motion and path in verb

SFU- Semester 2 (4 decks)

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