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Lifestyle Health And Risk Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the most important risk factors for CVD

A
  • high blood pressure
  • unhealthy diet
  • smoking
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2
Q

3 Contributory factors to CVD

A
  • stress
  • sleep deprivation
  • being male (difference in chromosomes)
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3
Q

The most common cause of death for UK men is…

A

Cardio Vascular Disease

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4
Q

What is the most common cause of death for UK women?

A

Dementia

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5
Q

How do worms get oxygen to their cells?

A
  • air diffuses in
  • surfactant aids diffusion
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6
Q

How do frogs get oxygen to their cells?

A
  • tadpoles can diffuse oxygen in
  • through gills ( lungs grow when they get older )
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7
Q

Frogs have a ____ chamber heart

A

Three

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8
Q

How do single celled organisms get oxygen to their cells

A

Diffusion

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9
Q

How do fish get oxygen to their cells?

A

Through their gills

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10
Q

Fish have a _______ circulatory system

A

Single

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11
Q

How do crickets get oxygen to their cells?

A

Air travels through holes in their body

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12
Q

Having a higher concentration gradient ________ rate of diffusion

A

Increases

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13
Q

The higher the surface area…

A

The faster the rate of diffusion

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14
Q

The larger the diffusion distance…

A

The slower the rate of diffusion

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15
Q

If temperature increases…

A

Rate of diffusion increases

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16
Q

Larger molecules =

A

Slower rate of diffusion

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17
Q

Concentration gradient decreases at a decreasing rate =

A

Diffusion decreases at a decreasing rate

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18
Q

The majority of cells in a _________ organism are not in contact w/ the organisms surroundings

A

multicellular

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19
Q

What is needed to transport oxygen and glucose to every cell in a multicellular organism

A

A mass flow system

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20
Q

Mass flow system transports substances in _______ down a __________ _____________. Enabling substances to move long distances at a ___________________________

A
  • bulk
  • pressure gradient
  • sufficient rate
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21
Q

Larger organisms have a ________________

A

Higher metabolism

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22
Q

What are the requirements for a mass flow system

A
  • circulatory fluid
  • contracting pump to move fluid
  • tubes through which fluid can circulate
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23
Q

What does a circulatory system move

A
  • blood
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24
Q

What is the pump for a circulatory system?

A
  • heart and contactable blood vessels ( arteries )
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25
Q

Digestive system moves ________________

A

Food and water

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26
Q

What pumps food and water around the digestive system

A

Muscle surround intestines

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27
Q

What materials are moved around the respiratory system

A

Air

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28
Q

What is the pump for the respiratory system

A
  • intercostal muscles
  • diaphragm
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29
Q

What is moved in the lymphatic system

A

Lymph

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30
Q

Lymph is pumped around the lymphatic system by the ____________________________

A

Contraction of skeletal muscle

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31
Q

Define an open circulatory system

A

In open circulatory systems blood is not fully contained in blood vessels

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32
Q

How do open circulatory systems work?

A

The heart pumps blood into the body cavity and tissues are bathed in blood

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33
Q

The blood is called __________ because it is mixed with __________

A
  • haemolymph
  • tissue fluid
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34
Q

Characteristics of a closed circulatory system

A
  • high pressure blood
  • oxygen concentration gradient is high because oxygenated and deoxygenated blood do not mix
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35
Q

Blood flow in closed circulatory systems

A

Heart Arteries Arterioles Capillaries Venules Valves Vein

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36
Q

Blood circulation to organs in single circulatory systems is organised in

A

Series

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37
Q

Circulation to organs is organised in _____________ in double circulatory systems

A

Parallel

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38
Q

Pulmonary circulation has high/low blood pressure?

A

Low

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39
Q

Systemic circulation has low/high pressure?

A

High

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40
Q

Why does blood pass through lungs or gills slowly?

A

In order to maximise the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide

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41
Q

Advantages of a parallel vascular system?

A
  • high oxygen conc grad for all organs
  • parallel arrangement reduces resistance
  • blood speed high t.f rate of oxygen delivery high
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42
Q

How many heart chambers do amphibians have?

A

3

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43
Q

Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood _________ in amphibian heart

A

Mix

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44
Q

Describe the location of the heart

A
  • middle of the thorax
  • apex tilts to the left
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45
Q

The outer fibrous pericardium is made up of ________________

A

Collagen rich connective tissue

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46
Q

Outer fibrous pericardium is ______________ and protects from _______________ of the heart, trauma and infection

A
  • inelastic
  • overextension
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47
Q

How is the fluid filled cavity formed

A

The inner serous pericardium folds back on itself and lubricates the hearts movements

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48
Q

Where does the coronary artery carry blood to?

A

Myocardium

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49
Q

Where do the subclavian arteries carry blood to

A

Arms

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50
Q

The ___________ arteries carry blood to the head

A

Carotid

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51
Q

Name the two heart valves on the right side of the heart

A
  • aortic semilunar valve
  • tricuspid valve
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52
Q

Name the two valves on the left side of the heart

A

-Pulmonary semilunar valve
-Biscupid valve

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53
Q

What is the scientific name for heart strings

A

Tendinous cords

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54
Q

What are tendinous cords used for

A
  • inelastic
  • attach valves to papillary muscles
  • help valves open
  • stop valves inverting
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55
Q

What is the function of the arteries?

A
  • to transport blood away from the heart
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56
Q

Blood in arteries is __________ and _________

A
  • oxygenated
  • bright red
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57
Q

Arteries have __________ blood pressure

A

High

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58
Q

What is the function of the veins

A

To transport blood to the heart

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59
Q

Blood in veins is ___________ and _____________

A
  • deoxygenated
  • purple red
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60
Q

Veins have ____ b.p

A

Low

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61
Q

What is the function of capillaries

A
  • gas exchange between blood and cells
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62
Q

Blood oxygenation in capillaries…

A

Changes for oxygenated to deoxygenated

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63
Q

Blood pressure in capillaries is

A

Low but higher than veins

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64
Q
A

Artery

1 - Collagen rich connective tissue
2 - Elastic tissue
3 - Smooth ( circular ) muscle
4- endothelium
5 - lumen

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65
Q
A

Vein
1 - Collagen rich connective tissue
2 - elastic tissue
3 - smooth ( circular ) muscle
4 - endothelium
5 - lumen

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66
Q

What is the diameter of a capillary?

A

8 um

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67
Q

What is the diameter of an artery

A

0.1 -> 20 mm

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68
Q

What is the diameter of a vein

A

0.1 -> 20 mm

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69
Q

Describe the wall structure of an artery

A
  • thick muscle and elastic layer
  • small lumen
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70
Q

Describe the wall structure of veins

A
  • thin muscle and elastic layer
  • large lumen
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71
Q

Describe the wall structure of capillaries

A
  • very thin endothelium ( one cell thick )
  • very small lumen ( RBC travel single file )
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72
Q

During systole arteries __________ following heart ________

A
  • expand
  • contraction
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73
Q

During diastole arteries _______________________ following heart contraction

A

( recoil ( = elastic recoil ))

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74
Q

Veins pass between _______________ and muscle contraction exerts a __________ on vein and propels blood forward

A
  • skeletal muscle
  • pressure
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75
Q

What is the biological significance for water being a good solvent for other polar molecules

A
  • hydropholic molecules can be transported easily
  • vital biochemical reactions can take place in aqueous cytoplasm
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76
Q

What is the biological significance of water being a bad solved for lipoprotein molecules?

A
  • lipids can form a bilateral membrane in water
  • lipids can only be transported in blood in combination w/ proteins ( hydrophobic )
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77
Q

Because water is a _______ it is a _______ molecule

A
  • dipole
  • polar
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78
Q

What is a polar molecule?

A

Uneven distribution of charge across the molecule

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79
Q

What is the importance of water having a high specific heat capacity ( takes a lot of energy to raise its temperature)

A
  • water is a good temperature buffer
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80
Q

What us the importance of water having a high latent heat of vaporisation?

A
  • organisms can cool down effectively as sweat evaporates without losing a lot of water
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81
Q

As water has _____________ organisms can survive in cold places without __________

A
  • high latent heat of condensation
  • freezing
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82
Q

What is the biological significance of water being liquid at most environmental temperatures?

A
  • water is a useful transport medium in mass flow systems
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83
Q

Water has a higher density than ice therefore…

A

Ice forms at the surface of waters allowing organisms below to survive

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84
Q

Water is _____________ therefore water plants can receive light for ______________

A
  • transmits
  • photosynthesis
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85
Q

Describe waters hydrostatic properties

A
  • water has a low compressibility so it can resist high pressure
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86
Q

What is the biological benefit of water being hydrostatic

A
  • allowed buoyancy
  • allows organisms to survive in deep oceans
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87
Q

Why is water cohesive?

A
  • They are attracted and stick to one another ( hydrogen bonds )
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88
Q

What is the biological significance of water being cohesive?

A
  • Water has high tensile strength so therefore it can travel in unbroken columns ( xylem vessels )
  • Water has high surface tension: therefore insects can walk on water
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89
Q

What is the biological significance of water having high adhesion?

A
  • water can be drawn into small spaces:
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90
Q

What is the cardiac cycle?

A

The cardiac cycle is the sequence of changes in the heart as it fills with blood and pumps it out again

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91
Q

What is atrial systole?

A
  • the contraction of the atria which pushes blood into ventricles
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92
Q

Describe what happens during atrial systole

A
  • as atria fills pressure increases
  • AV valves open and blood flows into ventricles
  • atria contract forcing blood into ventricles
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93
Q

What is ventricular systole?

A
  • the contraction of ventricles, which pushes blood up into the arteries
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94
Q

Describe ventricular systole

A
  • ventricles contract from the base upwards
  • pressure in ventricles increase, closing AV valves (lib sound)
  • semi lunar valves open and blood is pushed up and out into the arteries
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95
Q

What is diastole?

A

Complete relaxation of the atria and ventricles

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96
Q

Describe diastole

A
  • Atria and ventricles recoil and relax, lowering pressure in heart chambers
  • lower pressure in ventricles compared to in arteries draws in blood backward, closing semi lunar valves (dub sound)
  • low pressure in atria draws blood from veins in, refilling of atria
  • coronary arteries fill
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97
Q

What is SAN

A
  • sino atrial node
  • in wall of RA
  • pacemaker
    -generates electrical impulse to trigger atrial systole
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98
Q

What is AVN?

A
  • atrio-ventricular node
  • in wall of RA
  • electrical impulse for SAN reaches AVN (delay ensures atria have fully contracted and ventricles have filled)
  • AVN transmits impulse along bundle of His to Purkyne fibres, initiating ventricular systole from bottom upwards
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99
Q

The vagus nerve ___________ heart rate

A

Lowers

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100
Q

____________ nerve : increases heart rate

A

Accelerator

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101
Q

What does ECG stand for

A

Electrocardiogram

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102
Q

What is an ECG

A
  • a recording of the electrical activity of the heart over time
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103
Q
A

P wave: atrial systole
QRS complex: ventricular systole
T wave: diastole

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104
Q

Why is the P wave smaller than the QRS complex

A

Atrium is a smaller muscle therefore there is less electricity

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105
Q

Why do veins have a large lumen?

A

To reduce resistance to blood flow back to the heart

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106
Q

Why do veins have a smooth endothelium

A

To reduce resistance to blood flow

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107
Q

What is atherosclerosis?

A

The build up of artheromortus plaque in the inner layer of the artery wall

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108
Q

What happens if the arteries supplying the heart are blocked?

A

Heart attack

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109
Q

What happens if the arteries supplying the brain are blocked?

A

Stroke

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110
Q

Describe how AS is developed

A

Step 1:
Endothelium damaged causing a lesion
Step 2:
Inflammatory response:
-WBC accumulates under endothelium
-foam cells die and attract more macrophages
-deposit builds up
Step 3:
Plaque formation
-build up of calcium and fibrous tissue
-artery wall loses elasticity
Step 4:
-positive feedback
-artery narrows -> HBP
-further atheroma formation

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111
Q

What is thrombosis?

A

A blockage of a blood vessel by a blood clot

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112
Q

A thrombus is a blood clot that…

A

Forms in a vessel and REMAINS there

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113
Q

An embolism is a blood clot that…

A

Travels to another location in the body

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114
Q

Fatty plaques can either….

A

-block artery directly
-increase arteries chances of being blocked by a blood clot

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115
Q

What i8s the benefit of blood clotting?

A

-reduces blood loss
-prevents infection

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116
Q

Clotting is triggered when platelets come into contact with…

A

-damaged endothelium
-collagen fibres

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117
Q

Describe the blood clotting process:

A

Step 1:
-endothelium damaged
-collagen fibre exposed
-platelets are activated and become irregularly shaped
-thromboplastin released from damaged tissue and platelets
Step 2:
-platelet plug formed
-platelets stick to damaged vessel wall
Step 3:
Blood clot formed - fibrin mesh traps RBCs

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118
Q

Describe the blood clotting chemical pathway

A

-Thromboplastin turns prothrombin to thrombin.
-Thrombin turns fibrinogen (soluble) into fibrin (insoluble)

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119
Q

What is risk?

A

The probability of an unwanted event or outcome

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120
Q

How is risk calculated?

A

By looking at past circumstances of people who have taken the same risk

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121
Q

% risk =

A

( Number of people with unwanted outcome/ total no. Of people taking the risk ) * 100

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122
Q

Factors that cause overestimation of risk:

A

-Involuntary
-Unnatural/unfamiliar
-feared
-rare
-consequences are sudden

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123
Q

Factors that cause underestimation of risk

A

-Undertaken voluntarily
-Natural
-Familiar
-Enjoyed
-common
-Long term consequences

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124
Q

What are risk factors?

A

-Variables associated with an increased risk

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125
Q

What is an example of a hereditary risk factor?

A

Mutations

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126
Q

What is an example of environmental risk factors?

A

-Pollution
-Access to clean water

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127
Q

What is an example of a physiological risk factor

A

-HBP
-Obesity

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128
Q

What is an example of demographic risk factor?

A

-Age
-Sex
-Religion

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129
Q

What is an example of behavioural risk factor?

A

-Inactivity
-Smoking

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130
Q

Correlation is a ……….. between two ……………….

A

-Relationship
-Variables

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131
Q

What is positive correlation

A

-Increase of one variable is accompanied by an increase in another

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132
Q

What is negative correlation

A

-increase of one variable is accompanied by a decrease in another

133
Q

Causation is when…

A

A change in one variable is responsible for the change in the other

134
Q

Causation requires ………….. experiments to see if change in one variable has ……….. effect

A

-controlled -predicted

135
Q

Causation requires knowledge of …

A

Mechanism for how one variable affects another

136
Q

What is epidemiology

A

The study of distribution of disease in human populations and the factor determining this

137
Q

What are cohort studies

A

A prospective study where a group of people are followed overtime to see who develops a condition

138
Q

Describe the method of cohort study which compares exposure to risk factor

A

-Population is followed overtime and then separated
-Exposure to risk factors is compared

139
Q

Describe the method of cohort study which compares outcomes

A

-Population is separated into two groups
- One with risk factor one without
-Compare outcomes

140
Q

A case control study is a ………. Study where a group of people ……………… condition is compared to a group without the condition

A

-Retrospective
-With the same

141
Q

Describe a case control study

A

-two groups (one w/ condition and one control group)
-Look back in time
-Compare histories of exposure to risk factor

142
Q

What are the advantages of the cohort study

A

-Useful for rare exposure to risk
-Can evaluate multiple disease outcomes
-Minimises recall bias - data collected regularly
-Direct measurement of disease incidence

143
Q

What are the disadvantdges of a cohort study

A

-Requires more time and is more
-Large sample size
-Not useful for rare conditions (may not appear in cohort)
-Low validity due to dropouts (follow up bias)

144
Q

What are the advantedges of a case-control study

A

-Requires less time and is less exspensive
-Smaller sample sizes
-Can evaluate multiple exposures to risk
-Useful for rare conditions

145
Q

What are the disadvantdeges for a case control study

A

-Cannot determine disease incidence
-Not useful for rare exposures to risk
-recall bias can be substantial
-Selection bias possible in control group

146
Q

What makes a good research study?

A

-validity
-bias
-reliability

147
Q

In a reliable study results can be…

A

Consistently reproduced

148
Q

How do you achieve reliability?

A

-Large sample size (Trend can be detected)
-Standardising methods and equipment (valid method)

149
Q

What is validity?

A

Valid results answer the research question accurately

150
Q

How do you achieve validity?

A

-Control variables (one independent variable)
-Method and equipment appropriate to question

151
Q

What is Bias

A

The introduction of systematic error into a study by favouring one outcome or answer over others

152
Q

What are the three types of bias

A

-recall
-selection
-loss to follow up

153
Q

Selection bias is an error caused by choosing…

A

A group of participants that are not representive of the target population

154
Q

what is recall bias

A

-Systematic error caused by inaccurate recollection of past events by study participants

155
Q

What is loss to follow up bias

A

-Systematic error caused when exposure or study set up increases likelihood of participants dropping out thereby inaccurate comparison between groups

156
Q

What types of bias does cohort study have

A

Loss to follow up

157
Q

What types of bias does case control study have?

A

-selection
-recall

158
Q

With increasing ages arteries become…

A

Less elastic and more easily damaged
-likelihood of AS increases

159
Q

Why are men more likely to die of CVD

A

-women are somewhat protected by oestrogen
-men are more likely to engage in other risk factors (smoking/poor diet)

160
Q

How does oestrogen protect against CVD

A

-Reduces LDL and increases HDL
-reduces inflammatory response
-> likelihood of AS decreases

-heart muscle cells have oestrogen receptors
-oestrogen binding improves mitochondrial function
-vascular endothelial cells have oestrogen receptors
-oestrogen binding causes arterial dilation

161
Q

Blood pressure is a measure of the …………… force of blood ……….. the vessel walls

A

-hydrostatic
-against

162
Q

What does blood pressure depend on

A

-blood flow
-peripheral resistance

163
Q

Why is blood pressure in arteries high during systole

A

-blood flow increases
-peripheral resistance increases

164
Q

Why is blood pressure low in diastole

A

-blood flow decreases
-peripheral resistance decreases

165
Q

How does stress affect blood pressure

A

Increases
- adrenaline constricts arteries
-> peripheral resistance increases

166
Q

-High blood pressure is in the ……….. arteries
-……………………………. In walls of carotid ………… detect increase in pressure
-……………………. Carry impulses to …………………… centre in the medulla
-……………….. impulses sent via …… nerve to ….. reducing heart rate

-> blood pressure decreases

A

-Carotid
-stretch receptors
-sinuses
-Sensory nerves
-Cardiovascular
-inhibitory
-vagus
-SAN

167
Q

How does a high salt diet increase blood pressure

A

-osmotic effect increases blood volume
-> blood flow increases

168
Q

How does smoking increase blood pressure?

A

-Nicotine constricted arteries
-Peripheral resistance increases

169
Q

How does heavy alcohol consumption increase b.p

A

-Ethanol constricts arteries
-Peripheral resistance increases

170
Q

What are some early symptoms of HBP

A

Headache, dizziness, vomiting

171
Q

What are the late symptoms of HBP

A

CVD

172
Q

Oedema is the ……………. Caused by an excess of ……………………….. collecting in tissues

A

-swelling
-tissue fluid

173
Q

Tissue fluid is the ……………… fluid which ……………. The cells

A

-extracellular
-bathes

174
Q

What are the two factors that affect the movement of tissue fluid?

A

-Blood pressure
-Osmotic pressure

175
Q

If blood pressure > osmotic pressure then tissue fluid will…

A

Move out of blood

176
Q

If blood pressure < osmotic pressure then tissue fluid will…

A

Move into blood

177
Q

20% of tissue fluid is removed by…………………… and returned to blood at the …………

A

-lymphatic vessels
-vena cava

178
Q

How does oedema form?

A

-high blood pressure
-more tissue fluid
-not enough t.f removed in lymph
-> swelling

179
Q

What is blood pressure measured with?

A

Sphygmomanometer

180
Q

How is blood pressure measured? (step 1)

A

-inflatable cuff placed around upper arm
-cuff is inflated until blood stops flowing (no sound heard)

181
Q

How is systolic pressure measured?

A

-Valve opens so that air will be released from cuff
-Blood begins to flow through brachial artery
-Systolic pressure is measured when pulsing sound is heard

182
Q

Diastolic pressure is measured when the:
-valve is opened ……
-artery is no longer …………..
-measured when there is………………. Of blood movement

A

-further
-compressed
-no sound

183
Q

What is hypertension?

A

When the peripheral resistance of blood against artery walls is stop high

184
Q

How do ACE inhibitors cause vasodilation?

A

-Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors stop prodcution of Angiotensin 2 (which constricts arteries)

185
Q

How do ARBs cause vasodilation

A

Block angiotensin 2 receptors in arterial muscles

186
Q

How do calcium channel blockers cause vasodilation?

A

-They inhibit entry of calcium ions into muscle cells so they are less able to contract
-reducing arterial walls and force of heart contraction

187
Q

How do diuretics reduce hypertension?

A

Reduce water content of blood, therefore reducing blood volume

188
Q

How do beta blockers reduce hypertension?

A

-They block the action of stimulant hormones (adrenaline) acting on the SAN
-> decreased heart rate

189
Q

Reducing blood pressure by 5mmHg can decrease risk of stroke by… and ischaemic heart disease by …

A

-34%
-21%

190
Q

Carbohydrates are also called…….. or ………..

A

-sugars
-saccharides

191
Q

Carbohydrates contain elements…

A

C,H,O

192
Q

what is the general formula for monosaccharides?

A

Cn(H2O)n

193
Q

Are monosaccharides soluble or insoluble

A

Soluble

194
Q

What are the two types of monosaccharides

A

-Pentose
-Hexose

195
Q

What are two examples of pentose

A

-Deoxyribose
-Ribose

Components of DNA

196
Q

What are 3 examples of Hexose

A

-glucose
-fructose
-galactose

197
Q

What is the function of glucose?

A

-Major respiratory substrate
-Component of disaccharides (maltose sucrose lactose) and polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, cellulose)

198
Q

What is the function of fructose?

A

-respiratory substrate
-component of sucrose
-constituent of nectar and fruit

199
Q

What is the function of galactose?

A

-Respiratory substrate
-component of lactose

200
Q

What is this molecule?

A

Alpha Glucose

201
Q

What is this molecule?

A

Beta glucose

202
Q

What is this molecule?

A

Fructose

203
Q

What is this molecule?

A

Deoxyribose

204
Q

What is this molecule?

A

Ribose

205
Q

What is the general formula of a disaccharide?

A

Cn(H20)n-1

206
Q

Are disaccharides insoluble or soluble?

A

Soluble

207
Q

What does glucose + glucose make?

A

Maltose

208
Q

What does glucose + fructose make?

A

Sucrose

209
Q

What does galactose + glucose make?

A

Lactose

210
Q

What type of bond does maltose have?

A

A (1-4) glycosidic bond

211
Q

What type of bond does lactose have?

A

B (1-4) glycosidic bond

212
Q

What type of bond does sucrose have?

A

A (1-2) glycosidic bond

213
Q

What is the function of maltose?

A

-Respiratory substrate
-Found in germinating seeds

214
Q

What is the function of sucrose

A

-respiratory substrate
-sugar transported in phloem in pants

215
Q

What is the function of lactose

A

-Respiratory substrate
-Milk sugar: major carb source for sucklings in mammals

216
Q

Polysaccharides have thousands of …………….. units

A

Monosaccharide

217
Q

What is the general formula for polysaccharides?

A

Cx(H2O)y

218
Q

Are polysaccharides insoluble or soluble?

A

Insoluble

219
Q

Starch is made out of…

A

-Amylose
-Amylopectin

220
Q

Glycogen is made out of…

A

Cellulose

221
Q

Starch contains 30% ……….. and 70% ……………..

A

-Amylose
-Amylopectin

222
Q

What is amylose?

A

An UNBRANCHED chain of A(1-4) glucose (200-5000) units
-forms an alpha helix - hydrogen bonds between H and OH groups

223
Q

Amylopectin is a branched chain of…

A

Alpha glucose

224
Q

It contains ………….. bonds and ……………….. bonds (which form branches)

A

A(1-4)
A(1-6)

225
Q

Amylopectin is rapidly….

A

Hydrolysed
(Amylose digests branch endings)

226
Q

Each branch is ………… glucose residues long

A

8-12

227
Q

Glycogen is a branched chain of…

A

A(1-4) glucose
(5000-60,000 glucose units(

228
Q

What is more highly branched, amylopectin or glycogen?

A

Glycogen

229
Q

What digests glycogen branching endings?

A

Glucosidase

230
Q

Why are carbohydrates stored as starch or glycogen rather than glucose?

A

-polysaccharides are insoluble
-no osmotic effect
-otherwise cells would take in too much water

231
Q

Cellulose is an …………………. Chain of ………….. glucose

A

-unbranched straight
-B(1-4)

232
Q

How do chains of cellulose align?

A

-Parallel to each other forming tough fibres called microfibrils

233
Q

What are microfibrils held together by?

A

Hydrogen bonds

234
Q

Why does cellulose have an alternate structure rather than a helical structure?

A

Consecutive B glucose residues straight in orientation

235
Q

What is the function of glycogen?

A

-Major storage carb in animals and fungi

236
Q

What type of glycosidic bond does cellulose have?

A

B (1-4)

237
Q

What is the function of cellulose?

A

-Structural component of cell walls in plants

238
Q

What is an example of a non reducing sugar?

A

Sucrose

239
Q

What does Benedict test test for?

A

Reducing sugars (free alpha or B OH- group)

240
Q

State Benedict’s test

A

Reducing sugar + copper sulpha -> oxidise sugar + Cu2O

Blue-> red

241
Q

How do you adapt Benedict’s test to test for non-reducing sugars?

A

Use HCL to hydrolyse sugar first

242
Q

State Benedict’s test for non-reducing sugars

A

-non reducing sugar + hcl -> reducing sugar
-reducing sugar + CuSO4 -> oxidised sugar + CU2O

243
Q

What is the test for starch?

A

Test for amylose
Amylose + iodine -> amylose-iodine complex
yellow -> blue

244
Q

Describe how lactose is absorbed in a person who is lactose tolerant

A

-Lactose is broken down by lactase into galactose and glucose
-Galactose and glucose are absorbed into the blood stream

245
Q

Describe what happens to lactose in an intolerant person

A

-Lactose is not broken down
-Gut bacteria is fermented
-causing gases & acids
-leading to flatulence & abdominal pain

246
Q

Why is lactose-free milk hard to make?

A

-Large amount of lactose is needed
-Lactase needs to be separated from lactose-free milk product

247
Q

Immobilised enzymes are enzymes ………………. To a surface (e.g of ……………………………..)

A

-attached
-sodium alginate seeds

248
Q

What is the benefit of immobilised enzymes

A

-enzymes easily separated from products
-enzymes can be easily reused
-large SA for collisions between enzyme and substrate

249
Q

What is the difference in the way DNA and RNA are structured?

A

-DNA is structured into chromosomes
-RNA is structured into tRNA and mRNA

250
Q

What elements do lipids contain?

A

C, O H

251
Q

Lipids are……. In water

A

Insoluble

252
Q

Lipids are ……. In organic solvents

A

Soluble

253
Q

What is glycerol made out of?

A

-alcohol
-3 hydroxyl groups

254
Q

What are fatty acids amde of?

A

-A carboxylic acid (-COOH)
-long hydrocarbon chains (14-22)§

255
Q

What are monounsaturated fatty acids

A

-fatty acids that contain one C=C bond

256
Q

What are polyunsaturated fatty acids?

A

-Fatty acids that contain several C=C bonds

257
Q

How are triglycerides formed?

A

-3x condensation reactions to add 3 fatty acids to glycerol

258
Q

Saturated triglycerides are…

A

Saturated fatty acids

259
Q

Saturated triglycerides are …………. At room temp

A

Solid
(Fats)

260
Q

Saturated triglycerides are from…

A

Animals

261
Q

Unsaturated triglycerides are

A

Unsaturated fatty acids

262
Q

Unsaturated triglycerides are solid/liquid at room temp

A

Liquid
-oils
-from plants

263
Q

What are glycolipids made out of?

A

-glycerol
-2 fatty acids
-carbohydrate unit(s)

264
Q

What is cholesterol?

A

-a steroid

265
Q

Cholesterol is a component of…

A

Cell membranes

266
Q

Cholesterol is a precursor for…

A

Hormones

267
Q

What are waxes?

A

-long chain alcohols and a fatty acid linked by an ester bond

268
Q

What are some functions of lipids

A

-electrical insulation
-buoyancy
-water proofing

269
Q

What is 1 cal

A

-the quantity of heat energy required to raise the temp of 1g of water by 1C

270
Q

What is 1 Kcal?

A

-1000 cal

4180J / 4.18 kJ

271
Q

What is dietary reference values?

A

-energy and nutrient requirements for different group of healthy people in the UK

272
Q

What is Estimated Average Requirement?

A

-energy/nutrient intake which meets the need of 50% of people

273
Q

What is Lower Reference Nutrient Intake?

A

= energy/nutrient intake which meets needs of only 2.5% of people
= a measure of national inadequacy

274
Q

What is higher reference nutrient intake?

A

=energy/nutrient intake which meets needs of 97.5%
=similar to GDA (Guidline daily amount)

275
Q

What is 60-70% of TEE (Total energy expenditure)

A

Basic Metabolic Rate

276
Q

What is 10% of TEE

A

-Specific Dynamic Action

277
Q

What is 20-30% of TEE

A

-Physical Activity

278
Q

Basal Metabolic Rate is…

A

The energy expended when completely at rest for:
-Heartbeat
-Breathing
-Body Temp

(Depends on: age, sex, mass, height, genetic factors)

279
Q

What is specific dynamic action?

A

Energy expended for metabolising food including:
-eating
-digestion
-absorption

280
Q

What is Physical Activity?

A

-energy expended during exercise

(Dependent on body mass, duration, intensity, type of exercise)

281
Q

PA equation:

A

-time x body mass x exercise specific energy expenditure

282
Q

What is BMI?

A

Body mass index

-a measure of body fat based on height and mass of adult men and women

283
Q

What is the equation for BMI?

A

Body mass/ height ^2

284
Q

What is WHR?

A

-a measure of abdominal fat based on waist and hip circumferences

285
Q

What does WHR take into account?

A

-amount of abdominal fat

Abdominal fat correlates with risk of heart diesease

286
Q

Where does the body get cholesterol from?

A

-80% from the liver
-20% from food

287
Q

How is cholesterol transported in blood

A

-transported in lipoproteins because it is insoluble in water

288
Q

What is HDL?

A

High density Lipoprotein

289
Q

HDL is has …% cholesterol

A

20

290
Q

HDL contains ……………. Fatty acids

A

Unsaturated

291
Q

HDL contains different….

A

Apoproteins

292
Q

HDL transports cholesterol to the…

A

Liver for breakdown

293
Q

LDL stands for

A

Low density lipoprotein

294
Q

LDL contains 40%

A

Cholesterol

295
Q

LDL has……….. fatty acids and only …………. B

A

-saturated
-apoprotein

296
Q

LDL transports cholesterol from the…

A

Liver to cells

297
Q

How is cholesterol transported into cells?

A

-cells have LDL receptors on surface which bind to LDL
-LDL bound to receptor is released into the cell by endocytosis
-LDL and LDL receptors are separated at low PH
-LDL receptors are recycled back to cell surface
-LDL vesicles fuse with lysosome
-LDL is degraded and cholesterol is released

298
Q

How does cholesterol build up in the blood?

A

-excess saturated fat from diet increase in ldl

-LDL receptors on cell surface saturated:
-not all cholesterol taken into cells
-more cholesterol in blood stream

(Saturated fats may also increase LDL receptor activity)

299
Q

Why does high cholesterol increase CVD risk?

A

-LDL can build up in artery walls leading to atheroma formation

300
Q

How can blood cholesterol level be lowered?

A

-increase unsaturated fat in diet: increase in HDL

-HDL can reduce cholesterol in atheroma
-HDL takes cholesterol to liver for breakdown
-may also increase LDL receptor activity

301
Q

How do we keep our cholesterol in the healthy range?

A

HDL:LDL balance important

302
Q

What is a monogenic disorder?

A

Disease cause by mutations in a single gene

303
Q

What is a polygenic disorder

A

-disease caused by mutations in several genes

304
Q

What is a multifactorial disorder

A

-disease caused by a combination of mutations in several genes and environmental factors

305
Q

Genetic mutations in several different genes can…

A

Predispose an individual to CHD but environmental factor also contribute to CHD development

306
Q

What is familial hypercholestrolaemia

A

0Genetic disorder characterised by high LDL levels

307
Q

What can hypercholesterolaemia be caused by?

A

-Mutations in APOB gene
-dominant
-prevents ldl from binding to LDLR

-mutations in LDL receptor gene
-dominant
-LDLR levels reduce

Mutations in LDL RAP1 gene
-recessive
-LDLRAP1 protein assists LDLR function

Mutations in PCKS9 gene
-dominant
-PCKS9 required for LDLR synthesis

308
Q

What is apolipoprotein gene cluster?

A

-mutations in apoa1 gene
-familial HDL defiance
-dominant
-leads to low HDL levels

-mutations in APOE gene
-apoe & 9 allele
-co-dominant
-leads to low HDL levels

309
Q

What is the effect of the apolipoprotein gene cluster?

A

-cholesterol not removed from blood
-increased risk of AS

310
Q

What is hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?

A

-left ventricle myocardium and septum thickened
-1 in 500 have HCM mostly undiagnosed

311
Q

What is the effect of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?

A

-heart pumps blood to body less effectively
-electrical activity of heart affected - arithymia
-cardiac arrest

312
Q

What are free radicals?

A

-highly reactive molecules with unpaired electrons

313
Q

What are examples of free radicals?

A

-superoxide anion
-peroxide

-hydroxyl

314
Q

How are free radicals produced?

A

-uv light
-metabolism
-ionizing radiation
-smoking

315
Q

Free radicals are ……….. agents:

A

Oxidising

  • they take electrons from other molecules thereby oxidising and damaging them
316
Q

How do free radicals cause CVD

A

-they oxidise LDL
-oxLDL causes inflammation - e.g more macrophages recruited
-oxLDL causes foam cell formation
-> artheroscleoris

317
Q

What are antioxidants?

A

-molecules that prevent oxidation of other molecules by providing electrons to pair up with unpaired electrons of free radicals

318
Q

Vitamin C has various functions…

A

Within the body, including antioxidant properties

319
Q

How does caffeine affect neurotransmitter action?

A

-decreases adenosine : less alert and sleepy
-increases serotonin: more relaxed and tired
-increases noradrenaline: increases heart rate -> more oxygen to brain

320
Q

How can blood cholesterol be kept in a healthy range?

A

-healthy life-style
-healthy diet
-statins

321
Q

What are statins?

A

-decrease cholesterol synthesis
-increase LDL receptors synthesis
-increase LDL removal from blood

322
Q

How do u prevent blood clots?

A

Using anticoagulant drugs
-they affect synthesis of clotting factors (warfarin)

323
Q

What do platelet inhibitory drugs do?

A

-reduce stickiness of platelets

Aspirin

324
Q

What is the energy store in plants?

A
  • starch
325
Q

What is the energy store is animals?

A
  • glycogen
326
Q

What is the main energy store in animals?

A
  • lipids
327
Q

How does the structure of glycogen allow it to be an energy store?

A
  • polysaccharide of glucose
  • to provide glucose for respirate
  • B(1-6) bonds for rapid hydrolysis
  • compact to allow large amount to be stored
328
Q

Describe the reaction that joins two a-glucose molecules?

A
  • involving OH groups on both molecules
329
Q

Why is amylopectin and glycogen a good energy store

A
  • compact
  • highly branched so rapidly hydrolysed
  • insoluble so no osmotic affect
  • too large to diffuse across cell surface

Biology (6 decks)

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