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Biological Psych > Lifespan 2 > Flashcards

Lifespan 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

What must theories be?

A

Testable

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2
Q

Describe Evolutionary Theory?

A

Pass on adaptive traits for the specific environment via natural selection. Survival of the fittest.

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3
Q

Name a key Evolutionary Theorist

A

Charles Darwin

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4
Q

Describe Psychodynamic Theory

A

Personality is a product of conscious and unconscious forces. Children progress through stages involving the resolution of internal conflicts

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5
Q

Name two key Psychodynamic Theorists

A

Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson

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6
Q

Describe Behaviourism

A

Scientific approach aimed at explaining how people learn new behaviour based on experiences. Focus on observable behaviour rather than inner conflicts and untestable claims (critique of psychodynamic theory)

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7
Q

Name two key Behaviourism Theorists

A

John Watson and B.F. Skinner

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8
Q

Describe Constructivism

A

Rejection of behaviourism’s sole focus on observable behaviours. Aims to understand what goes on in children’s minds. Children actively construct knowledge in interaction with their environment. Development happens in stages

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9
Q

Name a Constructivism Theorist

A

Jean Piaget

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10
Q

Describe Sociocultural Theory

A

Children learn in social interaction with knowledgeable adults. Most learning happens in the ‘zone of proximal development’

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11
Q

Name a Sociocultural Theorist

A

Lev Vygotsky

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12
Q

What are the Psychosexual stages?

A

-oral
-anal
-phallic
-latency
-genital

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13
Q

Describe the oral stage

A

during the first year of life, infants focus on the pleasurable sensations of the mouth, obtained through sucking and biting

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14
Q

Describe the anal stage

A

during the second year, focus is on the pleasurable sensations of the anus, obtained through elimination

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15
Q

Describe the phallic stage

A

from 3-6 years, pleasure and problems are centred on the genital area. ‘phallic’ represents boys’ awareness of having a penus and girls’ awareness of not having one. Sexual interest is directed towards the opposite-sex parent, with boys desiring their mother and girls desiring their father

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16
Q

Describe the latency stage

A

from around 7 years through puberty, children focus on developing the skills that are valued by the adults of their culture, and sexual urges are submerged

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17
Q

Describe the genital stage

A

in the final stage, adolescents seek to satisfy their adult sexual desires

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18
Q

What is in each stage of Erikson’s 8 psychosocial stage theory?

A

In each of the 8 stages, people experience the internal conflict about their identity- “who am I”

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19
Q

What does resolving conflict in each of the 8 stages lead to?

A

It leads to a healthy personality

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20
Q

Name each of the 8 stages

A

-infant
-toddler
-pre-schooler
-grade-schooler
-teenager
-young adult
-middle-age adult
-older adult

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21
Q

What is the first psychosocial stage?

A

Infant

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22
Q

What happens in the infant stage?

A

Trust vs mistrust (-0 to 18 months) infants learn to either trust or mistrust the people who tend to their basic needs

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23
Q

What is the second psychosocial stage?

A

Toddler

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24
Q

What happens in the toddler stage?

A

Autonomy vs shared doubt. (-18 months to 3 years) Children learn to be autonomous and in control or feel shame because they doubt their abilities to do things by themselves

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25
Q

What is the third psychosocial stage?

A

Pre-schooler

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26
Q

What happens in the pre-schooler stage?

A

Initiative vs guilt (-3 to 5 years) Children learn to take initiative to achieve their goals; if children are prevented from taking initiative, they experience guilt over the failure of their efforts to become independent

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27
Q

What is the fourth psychosocial stage?

A

Grade schooler

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28
Q

What happens in grade schooler?

A

Industry vs inferiority (-5 to 12 years) Children learn to be effective and capable in the activities that are valued by members of their community, or they experience a sense of inferiority

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29
Q

What is the fifth psychosocial stage?

A

Teenager

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30
Q

What happens in Teenager?

A

Identity vs role confusion (-12 to 18 years) Adolescents establish a sense of personal identity or they become confused about who they are and what they want to do in life

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31
Q

What is the sixth psychosocial stage?

A

Young adult

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32
Q

What happens in young adult?

A

Intimacy vs isolation (-18 to 40 years) Young adults form close and committed relationships with others, or they risk isolation and loneliness

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33
Q

What is the seventh psychosocial stage?

A

Middle-age adult

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34
Q

What happens in middle-age adult?

A

Generativity vs stagnation (-40 to 65 years) Adults experience a sense of productivity in their lives and work and are willing to contribute to the next generation, or they experience a sense of stagnation

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35
Q

What is the final psychosocial stage?

A

Older adult

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36
Q

What happens in older adult?

A

Integrity vs despair (65+ years) Older adults are able to look back on their past and see a life that has been meaningful, or they feel despair over missed opportunities

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37
Q

What is an example of Classical Conditioning?

A

Little Albert

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38
Q

How many of Piaget’s Stages are there?

A

4

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39
Q

What is stage one called?

A

Sensorimotor period

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40
Q

What happens in the sensorimotor period?

A

Infants’ schemas- cognitive structures that organise informative information and guide understanding of and actions in the world- are limited to sensory experiences and motor actions

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41
Q

What is stage two called?

A

Preoperational period

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42
Q

What happens in the preoperational period?

A

Children are capable of mental representation or the internalisation of thought, as seen in the growth of language, symbolic play, deferred imitation and understanding of object permanence

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43
Q

What is stage three called?

A

Concrete operational period

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44
Q

What happens in the concrete operational period?

A

Children develop logical, flexible, organised and rational thinking; however their thinking is limited to concrete experiences

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45
Q

What is stage four called?

A

Formal operational period

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46
Q

What happens in the formal operational period?

A

Children are capable of abstract and hypothetical thinking, in which logical reasoning and problem solving move beyond concrete information and experiences

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47
Q

What age range in the sensorimotor period?

A

birth to 2 years

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48
Q

What age range in the preoperational period?

A

2 to 7 years

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49
Q

What age range is the concrete operational period?

A

7 to 11 years

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50
Q

What age range in the formal operational period?

A

11 years to adulthood

51
Q

What is assimilation?

A

Adding new similar experiences to a schema

52
Q

What is equilibrium vs disequilibrium?

A

Cognitive balance where experiences either fit or do not fit an existing schema

53
Q

What is accommodation?

A

modification of schema to fit reality

54
Q

What is Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development?

A

the gap between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance or collaboration

55
Q

What are each of the levels of Vygotsky’s zone of proximal development?

A

-What a child can do independently without help (level of actual development)

-What a child is able to do with help (Potential Development Level)

-What a child is unable to do, even with help

56
Q

Describe the Nativist Approach Theory

A

People are born with innate core capacities. Example domains: language, number, sense, face perception

57
Q

Describe Social Learning Theory

A

Children learn through social reinforcement (positive and negative feedback about behaviour), vicarious reinforcement, and observational learning. Bandura and Walter’s Bobo Doll Experiment is an example of this

58
Q

Describe Information processing theories

A

Focus on how children attend to, manipulate, process, store and retrieve information. Analogy to how a computer works. Focus on development of attention, processing speed, memory and problem solving

59
Q

Describe Developmental systems theory

A

Behaviour is the product of a complex dynamic system- developmental change is produced by many interacting factors, including factors ‘within’ the child (e.g. genes of the body, motivation) and features of the environment (e.g. cultural differences)

60
Q

Describe Biological theories

A

Focus on environmental influences on child development. Reciprocal effects between child and environment. Bronfenbrenner’s nested environmental ‘systems’

61
Q

Describe Sociocultural theories

A

Building on the work of Vygotsky. Focus on the contexts of child development. Culture is central- infuses all aspects of children’s lives. Three components of the ‘developmental niche’ (Super and Harkness): settings, customs and views

62
Q

What is the developmental niche by Charles Super and Sara Harkness?

A

developmental niche is essentially the cultural framework within which a child’s development takes place. It emphasizes that children’s development cannot be understood in isolation

63
Q

What are the three main features of the developmental niche?

A

-physical features
-behavioural features
-symbolic features

64
Q

What are the physical features?

A

materials and the use of space

65
Q

What are the behavioural features?

A

cultural practices and routines

66
Q

What are the symbolic features?

A

cultural beliefs and views

67
Q

What are cultural universals?

A

-some aspects of life are universal across cultures
-children everywhere are recipients and agents of change in their cultures

68
Q

What does Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological theory stress?

A

bioecological theory stresses that human development is shaped by the interplay between biological factors and the various environmental systems the individual encounters throughout their life

69
Q

What are Bronfenbrenner’s nested systems?

A

-Microsystem
-Mesosystem
-Exosystem
-Macrosystem
-Chronosystem

70
Q

What is the microsystem?

A

The immediate environments the person directly interacts with (e.g., family, school, peers).

71
Q

What is the mesosystem?

A

The connections between different microsystems (e.g., how family life influences school experiences).

72
Q

What is the ecosystem?

A

External environments that indirectly affect the individual (e.g., a parent’s workplace, community resources).

73
Q

What is the macrosystem?

A

The broader cultural, societal, and economic factors that shape the context (e.g., cultural values, laws, and economic systems).

74
Q

What is the chronosystem?

A

The dimension of time, which includes life events and historical changes that influence development (e.g., changes in family structure, societal shifts).

75
Q

What is hypothesis-driven research?

A

Clear prior hypothesis and test whether sufficient evidence exists to support that

76
Q

What is discovery-based research?

A

Learn from the data without a prior hypothesis

77
Q

What is the first step of the scientific method?

A

Identify a question

78
Q

What is the second step of the scientific method?

A

Formulate a hypothesis that answers the question

79
Q

What is the third step of the scientific method?

A

Test the hypothesis in a research study

80
Q

What is the final step of the scientific method?

A

Analyse results and draw conclusions

81
Q

What is sampling important for?

A

Generalisability, i.e. whether the sample represents the population at large. Larger sample is generally more representative but including participants from a range of backgrounds is also important

82
Q

Name four examples of research methods

A

-interviews
-written surveys
-observations
-physiological assessments

83
Q

Give examples of interviews

A

Structured (close-ended questions) and unstructured (open-ended questions)

84
Q

What is a benefit of an interview?

A

Data from the perspective of the participant, unstructured interviews used in qualitative research (to elicit detailed responses/explore a phenomenon in depth)

85
Q

What are the drawbacks of an interview?

A

Social desirability bias may impact responses. Selective disclosure

86
Q

Give examples of written surveys

A

paper and online

87
Q

What are the benefits of written surveys?

A

Minimises social desirability effects

88
Q

What is a drawback of written surveys?

A

Literacy demands

89
Q

Give examples of observations

A

-naturalistic
-structures
-direct assessments

90
Q

What are the benefits of observations?

A

Direct observation and assessment of behaviour. Can take place in naturalistic contexts

91
Q

What are the drawbacks of observations?

A

Costly and time consuming, especially if video coding is required. Behaviour may be affected by researcher presence

92
Q

Give examples of physiological assessments

A

-brain activation
-heart rate
-eye movements
-hormone levels

93
Q

What are benefits of physiological assessments?

A

physiological and brain mechanism underlying behaviour/cognition/emotion. Can pick up on unobservable aspects of learning and development

94
Q

What are the drawbacks of physiological assessments?

A

Can be costly, not always suitable for children. Data can be noisy and behavioural measures may be needed for interpretation

95
Q

Describe how correlational studies work

A

Associations between two or more variables

96
Q

What are the benefits of correlational studies?

A

Easy. No manipulation of variables. Tests associations between naturally occurring behaviours and situations

97
Q

What are the drawbacks of correlational studies?

A

Often difficult to disentangle cause and effect. Confounding variables

98
Q

How do longitudinal studies work?

A

Follow the same participants over time (months or years)

99
Q

What are the benefits of longitudinal studies?

A

Can test stability and prediction over time. Necessary to test ‘cascades’. Can get test mediation

100
Q

Whar are the drawbacks of longitudinal studies?

A

Costly and time-consuming. Attrition (drop out of participants)

101
Q

How do cross-sectional studies work?

A

Compare children at different ages (different groups of children)

102
Q

What are the benefits of cross-sectional studies?

A

Cheaper than longitudinal studies. Takes less time. More flexibility in study schedule

103
Q

What are the drawbacks of cross-sectional studies?

A

Cannot test stability or prediction over time

104
Q

How do cohort sequential studies work?

A

A mix of longitudinal and cross-sectional designs. Follow two or more groups over time.

105
Q

What are the benefits of cohort sequential studies?

A

Takes less time to cover a wide age span than longitudinal studies. Can test stability and prediction to some extent

106
Q

What are the drawbacks of cohort sequential studies?

A

Still more costly and time consuming than cross-sectional designs. Attrition

107
Q

What are microgenetic studies?

A

Frequent and detailed observations of children and/or detailed observations of learning in real time

108
Q

What are the benefits of microgenetic studies?

A

Rich information about the process of change

109
Q

What are the drawbacks of microgenetic studies?

A

Time consuming video coding. Often small samples (may lack generalisability)

110
Q

What are behavioural genetic studies?

A

Twin, adoption and genome-wide associations studies

111
Q

What are the benefits of behavioural genetic studies?

A

Useful for assessing genetic contributions to development

112
Q

What are the drawbacks of behavioural genetic studies?

A

Requires large sample sizes. May be time consuming to recruit participants

113
Q

In order to trust developmental research, what do you need to ensure?

A

-measures are valid
-measures are reliable
-we can replicate results
-we share methods, resources and data openly

114
Q

What does validity ask?

A

Does a test, task or other measure measure what it is supposed to/

115
Q

What is face validity?

A

The purpose of the test/measure is clear to people who look it over (‘does it do what it says on the tin’ ).

116
Q

What is construct validity?

A

The extent which the measure/test measures what it purports to measure.

117
Q

What is concurrent validity?

A

The extent to which scores on a measure/test correlate with scores on another (typically more standard or validated) measure of the same construct, at the same point in time.

118
Q

What is predictive validity?

A

The extent to which scores on a measure/test predict scores on a measure/test or criterion later in development.

119
Q

What is external/ecological validity?

A

The extent to which the test can be applied across different settings and groups of people, e.g., across different cultures.

120
Q

What is reliability

A

The consistency of measures/scores in the same participants over time or between two or more raters.

121
Q

What is Interobserver/intercoder reliability?

A

The degree to which two (or more) observers agree on ratings or scores.

122
Q

What is test/re-test reliability?

A

The degree to which the same participant receives the same score/rating on two different occasions.

123
Q

What does open science refer to?

A

refers to scientific transparency and openness about all aspects of the scientific enterprise

124
Q

Give examples of open science

A

-open sharing of procedures
-full documentation of recruitment procedures and participant characteristics
-open sharing of research materials, methods, and measures
-open sharing of data and analyses
-open sharing of video recordings (where relevant)
-description of all funding sources

Biological Psych (6 decks)

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