Lifespan Flashcards
What is fetal programming?
environmental events in utero during sensitive windows of development can have long-lasting effects
undernutrition in utero is predictive of increased risk of heart disease and diabetes in adulthood
in utero experiences permanently program organs in ways that predisposes kids for future health problems
What are reaction range and canalization according to gottesman?
reaction range for certain traits that determines how people respond to environmental influences
genetic make up determines if reaction range for a certain characteristic is broad or narrow
child born with mild ID, has broader range of positive outcomes from an enriched environment than does a child with severe ID
canalization- tendency for genetic makeup to restrict developmental outcomes regardless of environmental circumstances
What is the dynamic systems theory of development?
development is a complex interaction of nature and nurture
simple repetitive behaviors emerge before voluntary complex behaviors
motor milestones dont suddenly emerge with maturation, simple behaviors of kicking reaching etc come togetehr to be crawling when supported by the situation
milestones generally emerge in the same order but the way they emerge depends on characteristics on the kid
Describe Scarr’s theory of genotype-environment correlations
person’s genetic makeup affects their characteristics directly and indirectly by influencing the environment the person is exposed to. 3 different genotype-environment correlations:
passive genotype-environment- child inherits genes from parents that predisposes them to have certain characteristics and they are exposed to environments by their parents that support those characteristics (inherits sociability and put in social situations by parents)
evocative genotype-environment- child’s genetic make up evokes certain reactions from other people that reinforces their genetic makeup. (social kid interacts with others in a way that is socially reinforcing)
active genotype-environment- aka “niche-picking” kid actively seeks experiences that fit their genetic predispositions (social kids seek out opportunities for social interaction)
passive and evocative more important at younger ages, active because more important during adolescence
Describe Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory of development
development is the result of interactions between a person and their environment. there are 5 environmental systems:
microsystem- child’s immediate environment, parents, siblings, friends, school, etc.
mesosystem- interactions between elements of the microsystem
exosystem- elements that affect the immediate environment, such as parents place of work, extended family
macrosystem- social and cultural environment
chronosystem- environmental events that occur over the lifespan- parental divorce, birth of sibling, natural disasters
Define sensitive periods and critical periods
critical period- limited period of time when exposure to certain environmental events is necessary for development to occur
sensitive period- longer than a critical period, optimal but not necessary for the environmental event to occur
What is epigenetics?
changes in phenotype (expression of genes) caused by changing the function of expression of genes without causing changes in genotype
caused by environmental factors like diet, pollution, child abuse
What causes Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes?
both are caused by chromosomal deletion on chromosome 15, on the paternal chromosome 15 for prader-willi and the maternal chromosome 15 for angelman syndrome
What causes Rett syndrome (also called RTT)?
mutation of MECP2 gene, it is an x-linked dominant disorder, mostly affects girls
What causes phenylketonuria (PKU)?
autosomal recessive trait, to inherit PKU both parents but have the recessive gene
What is the age of viability for a fetus?
between 22-26 weeks
Which type of down syndrome can be caused by an error during cell division or heredity?
translocation trisomy 21
mosaic trisomy 21 and traditional trisomy 21 are both only caused by error during cell division
What race has highest rate of preterm births?
non-hispanic blacks
non-hispanic asians have the lowest rate
What are the 3 stages of development of depth perception?
kinetic (motion), binocular (stereoscopic), pictorial (static-monocular) cues (such as size, shadows, linear perspective that can be perceived with only 1 eye)
Which sense is the least developed at birth?
sight
define holophrastic
using a single word to express an entire thought with meaning of the word depending on context and tone
e.g. “juice” to mean i want juice or i spilled my juice
What are the 3 types of theories regarding language development
learning, nativist, and social interactionist
learning- language development is result of imitation and reinforcement
nativist- humans are biologically programmed to acquire language
social interactionist- language acquisition depends on combo of biological and social factors
Describe Chomsky’s version of nativist theory and the evidence for this
Chomsky believes we have a language acquisition device which is an inborn linguistic processor that enables children to understand language and speak in rule-governed ways
evidence for this theory is that all languages have the same basic underlying grammatical structure and all children pass through same stages of language acquisition at similar ages
What are overextension and under extension? what is overregularization?
overextension-child uses word too broadly, ex. doggie to refer to all furry animals
underextension- child uses a word too narrowly, uses doggie to only refer to family pet
overregularization- misaplies rules for plurals and past tense, ex. foots instead of feet, goed instead of went
What are free morphemes and bound morphemes?
free morphemes are the smallest units of language that have meaning (words)
bound morphemes must be combined with at least one other morpheme (ex. pre in pretest)
What are the developmental milestones of language?
cooing- 6-8 weeks
babbling- 3-6 months
echolalia- 9 months (repeating sounds and words without knowing meaning)
first words- 10-15 months (began to understand words at 8-9 months)
vocabulary spurt- rapid increase in vocab around 18 months
holophrastic- 12-15 months, using one word to express entire thought
telegraphic speech- 18-24 months, 2 content words, “doggie gone”
Describe Piaget’s theory of moral development
-cognitive development is necessary for moral development
-simlar to understanding game rules, used violation of game rules to study this
Three stages:
1. premoral- birth to 5 yo, limited understanding of rules/moral behaviors
2.heteronomous- begins at 5-6 yo, rules are made by authorities and cannot be changed, judge behaviors by their consequences, worse consequences, worse behavior (breaking 9 dishes worse than breaking 3 dishes)
3. autonomous- begins around 10/11 yo, rules are determined by agreement between people, can be changed, judge behaviors based on the person’s intentions
name 2 criticisms of Piaget’s theory of moral devlopment
- underestimates cognitive abilities and moral understanding of kids
- erroneously states that moral development stops in late childhood/early adolescence
Describe Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
studied moral devleopment using moral dilemmas, the Heinz dilemma is the most famous
moral development is related to cognitive development and social perspective-taking
3 levels, with 2 stages each:
1. Preconventional morality:
a. pubishment and obedience= acceptability of behavior depends on if it leads to pubishment or not
b. instrumental hedonism stage- acceptability of behavior depends if it leads to reward or fulfilling a need
2. Conventional morality:
a. good girl/boy stage- acceptability of behavior depends on if it is socially approved
b. law and order orientation- acceptability depends on whether the behavior violates laws
3. postconventional morality:
a. morality of contract- behavior is acceptable if consistent with democratically chosen laws
b. morality of individual principles of conscience- behavior is acceptable if it is consistent with universal general principles (justice, fairncess, etc.)
What criticism’s of Kohlberg’s moral development theory
1.underestimates moral reasoning of kids
2.too rigid and linear, doesnt take into account that judgments may vary by motivation and context
3.androcentric- only used male research participants
4. culturally biased, Western cultures focused
Describe Piaget’s constructivist theory of cognitive development
cognitive development relies on a combination of bioloigcal maturation and experience, it is an active process by which kid constructs knowledge through interacting with their environment
-source of motivation for cognitive development is equilibration- innate drive toward a state of equilibrium between one’s current ways of thinking and the environment
when in disequilibrium, child strives to reequalize through adaptation by:
assimilation- attempt to understand a new object or situation by using existing cognitive schemas
accommodation- modifying an existing cognitive schema or creating a new cognitive scheme to fit the new object/situation
What are the 4 universal stages of cognitive development according to Piaget’s constructivist theory?
- sensorimotor stage (birth to ~2)
- preoperational stage (2-7 yo)
- concrete operational stage (7-12)
- formal operational stage (12-adulthood)
What are the 6 substages of the sensorimotor stage of piaget’s constructivist theory of cognitive development?
- reflexive reactions (0-1 mo)-innate reflexes
- primary circular reactions (1-4 mo)- actions involving own body
- secondary circular reactions (4-8 mo)- actions involving objects, imitation of familiar actions of others
- Coordination of secondary circular reactions (8-12 mo)- combine secondary actions to achieve goals, imitate novel actions of others
- tertiary circular reactions (12-18 mo)- experiments to discover consequences
- Internalization of schemas (18-24 mo)- mental representations of morality, mentally solve problems
Define object permanence and representational thought. When are these accomplished?
accomplished through the sensorimotor stage
object permanence- understanding that a person/object still exists even when you can see/hear it (begins to develop in 4th substage)
representational thought- use of mental images to represent people/objects and engage in make believe play and deferred imitation (ability to remember actions of others and imitate at a later time)
What is the preoperational stage of Piaget’s constructivist theory of cognitive development?
2-7 yo
representational thought increases and allows kid to think about past and future, more sophisticated make believe play
preoperational thought is limited by:
transductive reasoning: leads preoperational kids to think that unrelated events that occur at the same time are causally related
egocentrism- limits ability to understand others don’t experience things in the same way
2 outcomes of limitations of this stage are:
magical thinking- belief that just thinking something can make it happen
animism- belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities
children also cant conserve in this stage because of centration (tendency to focus on one aspect of a object/situation) and irreversibility (inability to understand a process can be reversed)
What is the concrete operational stage of Piaget’s constructivist theory of cognitive development?
7-12 yo
kids can use mental activities to think about concrete situations, can now conserve (first can conserve numbers, then length, liquid, etc.)
the sequential emergence of being able to conserve different things is an example of horizontal decalage = gradual development of a skill within a single stage of development
conservation relies on decentration and reversability
What is the formal operational stage of Piaget’s constructivist theory of cognitive development?
12-adulthood
ability to think abstractly, engage in:
hypothetical deductive reasoning-derive and test alternative hypotheses to determine solution to a problem
propositional thought- ability to evaluate the logic of verbal statements without concrete examples
renewed egocentrism- inability to separate one’s own abstract thoughts from those of others, 2 characteristics of this are:
1. imaginary audience belief that always the subject of other peoples attention and concern
2. personal fable- belief that self is special and unique, omnipotent, invulnerable to harm
Describe Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development
views cognitive development as being influenced by social and cultural factors
cognitive development occurs first on an interpersonal level and then intrapersonal level
ex. teacher helps kid learn to solve a math problem by providing verbal prompts, then later alone the kid verbalizes the teachers prompts to guide their own behavior.
private speech- kid talking outloud to guide their behaviors, associated with more effective problem solving
by about 7, private speech is replaced by inner silent speech
What are the zone of proximal development and scaffolding according to Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of cognitive development?
zone of proximal development: learning precedes and facilitates cognitive development, and learning is most rapid when within this zone, which is the gap between what a kid can currently do independently and what they can do with assistance
scaffolding- the assitance provided by another person, more effective when uses prompts, questions, feedback
make-believe play gives gives a proximal zone to practice new social roles and behaviors in
What are the explanations for childhood amnesia?
most adults cant remember things before 3/4 yo, suggested this because
1. language allows memories to be encoded and young kids have limited language skills
2. sense of self is necessary for developing personal memories and this hasnt been developed yet
6mo infants can remember things up to 24 hours, 20 mo infants can remember info up to 12 months
What is the reminiscence bump?
older adults recall events more from the 10 years prior and from the ages of 15-25
suggested this is because when identity formation occurs and many memorable events occur during this time
What memory is most effected by age related decline
Recent long-term (secondary) memory, followed by the working memory aspect of short-term memory
storage aspect of short-term memory and remote long-term memory relatively unaffected by age
older adults may be less likely to use effective encoding strategies
episodic memory declines with age, semantic memory has little or no age-related decline
What is Freud’s theory os psychosexual development (personality development)?
libido is focused in different area of the body in each stage, excessive gratification/frustration can lead to fixation at that stage and affect outcomes
5 stages beginning at birth:
0-1: oral
1-3: anal
3-6: phallic
6-12: latency
adolescence: genital
What is erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
epmhasizes social and cultural influences on personality, views personality as continuing to develop throughout the life, 8 stages with different conflicts and succesful outcomes associated (virtues)
0-1: trust vs. mistrust (hope)
1-3: autonomy vs. shame/doubt (will)
3-6: initative vs. guilt (purpose)
6-12: industry vs. inferiority (competence)
adolescence: identity vs. role confusion (fidelity)
young adulthood: intimacy vs isolation (love)
Middle adulthood: generativity vs. stagnation (care)
late adulthood: integrity vs. despair (wisdom)
What are the 4 parenting styles and how do they effect children
combinations of demandingness(control) and responsiveness (warmth)
authoritative: high in both, clear rules but also affectionate and encouraging independence, the best outcomes for kids
authoritarian: high on demandginess, low on responsiveness, many rules, little nurturance, kids become insecure and moody, greater risk to bully others
permissive- low in demand, high in responsiveness, no attempt to control kids, extremely accepting and supportive of all behaviors, kids become self centered, poor impluse control, greater risk of being bullied
uninvolved parents- low on both, uninvovled, unaware of kids needs, more concerned with their own needs, these kids have the worst outcomes, prone to drug use, antisocial behavior
Process of development of self-understanding
-2-6 identify self by age and gender first, followed by concrete characteristics, common behaviors and activities
7-11: self description becomes more general, includes personality traits and involves social comparisons
adolescents- describe self in terms of abstract qualities, beliefs nad values, understand characteristics can be different in different settings
Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory of gender identity
based on assumption that gender identity development depends on cognitive development. occurs in 3 stages:
- gender identity- emerges between 2-3 yo, child identifies self and others as male or female
- gender stability- ~4yo, kid realizes gender identity is consistent over time
- gender constancy- emerges with conservation skills at 6/7, realize gender is stable across time and situations
Social Learning Theory of gender identity
focused on role of social factors, acquisition of gendered preferences and behaviors preceds gender related beliefs
Bussey and Bandura’s version of this theory = gender identity development is a combo of observation and imitation of same-gendered adults, differential reinforcement occurs when they only receive praise for gender appropriate behaviors
Bem’s gender schema theory
combines cognitive developmental theory and social learning theory
children organize gender-typed experiences and info into gender schemas that they use to interpret info about themselves and others
people differ in how much they rely on gender schemas:
gender-schematic= gender is very salient, more likely to use gender norms to guide their own behaviors and judge others
gender-aschematic= gender less salient for them
this is determined by extent to which exposed to gender norms as a child and reinforced for sticking to these norms
Egan and Perry’s multidimensional model of the components of gender identity
5 components: mebership knowledge, gender typicality, gender contentedness, felt pressure, intergroup bias
person’s status on these 5 components relates to their adjustment
