I/O

Question 1

What are the 2 types of subjective measures of performance appraisal?

Answer 1

relative rating scales- require the rater to evaluate the employee by comparing them to other employees

absolute rating scales- rater evaluates employee without considering performance of other employees

Question 2

What are 2 types of relative ratings scales for performance appraisal?

Answer 2

paried comparison technique- rater compares employee to all other employees in pairs on each dimension of job performance (quality, knowledge, communication), by indicating which employee is best (advant: alleviates central tendency, leniency, and strictness biases; disadvant: very time consuming)

focred distribution method: rater assigns certain percentage of employees to prespecified performance categories for each dimension of performance (advant: alleviates rater biases; disadvant: gives inaccurate info when employees dont match the prespecified categories)

Question 3

What are the 3 types of absolute rating scales for performance appraisal?

Answer 3

critical incident technique- identifying behaviors that exceptionally poor or exceptionally good, by observing while they work or asking people familiar with the job. list of critical incidents used to evaluate performance (advant: useful info for employee feedback bcuz focused on observable behaviors; disadvant: time-consuming to develop, focuses on extremes, job specific)

graphic rating scale- use likert scale to rate performance on several dimensions (advant: easy to cosntruct; disadvant: vulnerable to rater biases)

behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS)- a type of graphic rating scale, each point is anchored with a description of a specific behavior (advant: reduce rater biases, provide useful info for employee feedback, disdvant: time consuming to develop, job specific)

Question 4

Define ultimate and actual criterion for performance measures

Answer 4

ultimate criterion- ideal measured that assesses all important contributors to job performance

actual criterion- what a job performance measure actually meausres

Question 5

What are criterion deficiency and contamination and what do they contribute to?

Answer 5

they contribute to the gap between ultimate and actual criteria for performance measures

criterion deficiency- aspects of performance not assessed by the criterion

criterion contamination- criterion measure is affected by factors unrelated to job performance (like gender or race)

Question 6

What are the 4 rater biases that occur in performance assessment?

Answer 6

distribution errors- raters consistently using only one part of the rate scale for all employees:
a. central tendency- gives everyone average ratings despite actual performance
b. leniency or strictness biases - consistently gives all employees high or low ratings

halo error- rater’s rating of employee on one dimension affects how they rate the employee on all other dimensions even when unrelated

contrast error- ratings of 1 employee are affected by the performance of a previously rated employee

similarity bias- raters give higher ratings to employees they perceive as similar to themselves

Question 7

what methods can be used to reduce rater biases?

Answer 7

use relative rating scales (distribution errors), anchoring points on absolute rating scales, provide raters with adequate training

Question 8

Define behavioral interviews and situational interviews for employee selection

Answer 8

behavioral- based on assumption that past behavior is best predictor of future behavior, asks how they responded to job-related situations in the past

situational interviews- future-oriented, asks how they would respond to hypothetical situations

situational has been found to be more predictive of job performance, means intentions are more predictive than past behaviors

Question 9

What is the most valid predictor of job performance?

Answer 9

general mental abliity tests, but has greater risk than other predictors of having adverse impact on minority applicants

(followed by interviews, job knowledge tests, integrity tests)

combining a generaly mental ability test with integrity test gives the greatest gain in validity

Question 10

what personality trait is most predictive of job performance?

Answer 10

conscientiousness

Question 11

What is an integrity test?

Answer 11

used to predict if applicant is likely to engage in counterproductive behaviors. two types:

overt integrity tests- asks directly about attitudes towards dishonesty/theft and past history of these

personality-based integrity tests- assess personality aspects linked to dishonesty, etc

dont seem to h ve adverse impact on minorities, good predictors of counterproductive behaviors and job performance

overt better at predicting counterproductive behaviors

personality better at predicting job performance

Question 12

What are assessment centers used for?

Answer 12

evaluating candidates for managerial level jobs

methods used: personality and ability tests, structured interviews, simulations

most commonly used simulation techniques: in-basket exercise and leaderless group discussion

Question 13

Definite biodata

Answer 13

biographical info that predicts job performance include things like family history, health history, etc

good predictor of performance for variety of jobs

disavant: some lack face validity, applicants may view as irrelevant and invasion of privacy and not answer

Question 14

Define compensatory and noncompensatory methods of combining info from multiple predictors of job performance

Answer 14

compensatory- appropriate when high schore on 1 or more predictors can compensate for low score on another predictor (clinical prediction, multiple regression)

noncompensatory-used when a low score on one predictor cannot be compensated for by a high score on another predictor
a. multiple cutoff- all predictors adminsitered to all applicants and they must obtain a score above cut off on all predictors to be considered
b. multiple hurdles- measures administered in order, has to score above cutoff on each predictor to be administered the next one

Question 15

How is incremental validity increased?

what are selection ratio and base rate?

Answer 15

a predictor is most likely to add to decision-making accuracy when its criterion-related validity coefficient is large

but even when low to moderate, can have incremental validity when selection ratio is low and base rate is moderate

selection ratio- percent of job applicants company plans to hire, low ratio is best because means company has more options to choose from

base rate- % of employees who were hired using current selection procedures and are considered successful

Question 16

How are taylor-russell tables used to determine incremental validity?

Answer 16

gives an estimate of incremental validity for different combos of criterion-related validity, selection ratios, and base rates

Question 17

Define test unfairness

Answer 17

when members of one group consistently obtain lower scores on a selection test but the score difference is not reflected in differences in scores on a meausre of job performance

Question 18

define differential validity and the 80% rule

Answer 18

when a selection test has different validity coefficients for members of different groups

80% rule- adverse impact is occurring when the hiring rate for a legally protected group is less than 80% of the hiring rate for hte majority group

Question 19

What options does an employer have when the court determines their selection test is having an adverse impact?

Answer 19

replace the procedure, modify the procedure, or demonstrate that there is no alternative procedure that would not have an adverse impact and that the procedure is job-related, job relatedness is demonstrated by showing procedure is valid, business necessity, or bona fide occupational qualification (necessary for maintaing normal bussines, BFOQ can be gender, age, religion, but not race)

Question 20

What are the 4 analyses conducted as part of a needs analysis for developing a training program?

Answer 20

1. organizational analysis- identify organizational goals, determine if performance probs due to lack of training, bad selection procedures or something else
2. task analysis- identify tasks required to performan the job and the knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to successfully perform each task
3. person analysis- identify which employees have deficiencies that need training
4. demopgrahic analysis- identify training needs of specific groups of owrkers (young vs old)

Question 21

What are the 3 factors that affect learning?

Answer 21

1. distributed vs. massed practice
2. whole-task vs part-task (whole training more effective when task is highly organized and highly interrelated)
3. overlearning- learning or practicing beyond point of mastery and results in automaticity

Question 22

What are the 3 factors that effect trasnfer of training?

Answer 22

1. identical elements- more simliar training and work situations are, greater the trasnfer of training
2. stimulus variability- trasnfer is maximized when variety of stimuli are used during training- multiple examples, practice in variety of conditions
3. support- amount of support received for using new skills on the job

Question 23

What are the 2 types of training evaluation and their components according to Scriven’s model

Answer 23

1. formative evaluation- assists with development and improvement of a program
2. summative evaluation- determine whether program outcomes met the program’s goals

components of formative eval:
1. needs assessment
2. evaluability assesssment (determine if evaluation if possible and practical)
3. structured evaluation- define program, its participants, and potentail outcomes
4. implementation evaluation- monitor fidelity of the program
5. process eval- eval how program was delivered

components of sumamtive eval:
1. outcome eval- if program achieved its goals
2. impact eval- identify intended and unintended effects of the program on the org
3. cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis- assess outcomes in terms of costs and benefits
4. secondary analysis-identify new questions or methods not previously addressed
5. meta-analysis- integrate all outcome estimates and derive a summary evaluation

Question 24

What is dessinger-moseley full scope evaluation model

Answer 24

expanded on scriven’s dichotomy and had 4 types of eval:
1. formative- conducted during development of training program determine what changes are needed
2. summative- conducted soon after the training program to determine immediate effects
3. confirmative- conducted at later time to evaluate long-term effects
4. meta-evaluation- ongoing process done during and after the first 3 evals to assess reliability and validity

Question 25

What is kirkpatrick’s evaluation model

Answer 25

4 levels of training program eval from least to most formative:
1.reaction criteria- trainees impressions of training
2. learning criteria- how well trainees acquired the info/skills
3. behavior criteria- degree to which trainee perofrmance improved
4. results criteria- effects of training on ROI, satisfaction, other org outcomes

Question 26

Describe Super’s life space, life span career theory

Answer 26

5 stages of career development: growth (1-14), exploration (15-24), establishment (25-44), maintenance (45-64), disengagement (65+)

life-space- various life roles a person assumes at different times and in different contexts

life-career rainbow- relationship between persons life stages and major life roles over lifespan

self-concept- how people perceive themselves and their situations, develops over lifespan, result of interactions of internal and external factors

self-concept influences and is influenced by a persons career development process and is major determinant of career decisions

Question 27

Holland’s theory of career choice

Answer 27

6 personality and work environment types (RIASEC)- realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, conventional

types arranged around a hexagon

high degree of congruence between personality and the characteristics of the work environment

most predictive of job outcomes when person’s score indications high degree of differentiation (high score on one personality type and low on all the others)

Question 28

Dawis and Lofquist’s theory of work adjustment

Answer 28

congruence between characteristics of the person and the work-environment predict job tenure which is primary indicator of work adjustment

tenure is result of 2 factors:
satisfaction- employee’s satisfaction with the job (employee’s needs and reinforcers provided by the job)
satisfactoriness- employers satisfaction with the employee ( how well employees skills math job requirements)

Question 29

Tiedman’s career decisio-making model

Answer 29

vocational identity development- ongoing decision-making process linked to erikson’s psychosocial stages of ego identity development

2 phases of career decision-making:
1. anticipation phase- exploration, crystallization, choice, and clarification stages
2. implementation- induction, reformation, integration stages

Question 30

krumboltz’s social learning theory of career decision-making

Answer 30

4 factors contribute to career decisions:
1. genetic endowment & special abilities
2. environmental conditions and events beyond person’s control
3. instrumental and associative learning experiences
4. task approach skills (problem-solving skills, work habits)

self-observation and worldview generalizations also guide a person’s career decisions and behaviors

Question 31

driver and brousseau’s career concept model

Answer 31

four career concepts:
1. linear career- ppl motivated by desire for power and achievement, upaward motion, infrequent career changes
2. expert career concept- motivated by desire to have job security, career is life long committment, develop expertise, mastery of skills more important than moving up
3.spiral career concept- motivated by need for personal growth, lateral moves across similar positions every 5-10 years
4. transitory career concept- desire for variety and independence, lateral movements across different occupations ever 2-4 years

Question 32

Taylor’s scientific management organizational theory

Answer 32

to maximize organizational efficiency and productivity managers must: use scientific methods to identify best way to do a job, select workers scientifically and trained appropriately,equal division of labor, cooperate with workers

workers are motivated by primary desire for economic gain, financial incentives should be linked to productivity

Question 33

Weber’s bureaucracy organizational theory

Answer 33

bureaucracy an impersonal and rational way to ensure operations are orderly and efficient. essential elements of a bureaucratic organziation are: division of labor, well-defined hierarchy of authority, formal rules and procedures, employment decisions based on competence and merit, written records, separation of ownership and management

Question 34

mayo’s human relations approach organizational theory

Answer 34

research done at Hawthorne power plant

changed various physical work conditions to identify which ones maximized productivity

productivity increased regardless of what changes were made- found to be due to just the attention the workers got from being research participants - called this the Hawthorne effect

social factors determined to be more important for motivation and productivity than physical work conditions

Question 35

mcgregor’s Theory X/Theory Y organizational theory

Answer 35

superior’s beliefs about subordinates have self-fulfilling prophecy effect

theory X supervisors- believe subordinates are inherently lazy, resist change, dislike resonsiblity, so supervisor must be directive and controlling

Theory Y- subordinates enjoy work, self-directed, internally motivated, seek responsibilty, supervisor’s role is to provide conditions that allow them to fulfill their own goals

Question 36

Katz and Kahn’s open-system theory

Answer 36

organizations are open-systems- undergo cycle of events, act to maintain homeostasis, acquire new resources, function according to equifinality and multifinality

equifinality- system can achieve same goal or outcome in multiple ways

multifinality- system can achieve dissimilar goals or outcomes from the same initial conditions

Question 37

What are programmed and nonprogrammed organizational decisions?

Answer 37

programmed- repetitive and routine decisions, governed by rules, policies, and procedures. often made by lower level personnel (hiring, ordering, billing)

nonprogrammed- non-repetitive, complex, require unique or creative solutions, rely on the decision-makers judgment and problem solving skills. usually made by upper-level personnel, include decisions related to developing new products or services ,responding to legal issues

Question 38

What are the 3 organizational decision-making models?

Answer 38

rational model- aka classical model, decision-makers choose the optimal alternative after identifying and evaluating all possible alternatives in objective, deliberative, and orderly way

bounded rationality model- recognizes rational decision-making is limited by organizational and individual factors such as time restrictions, limited access to info, cognitive abilities. because of this people often “satisfice” rather than optimize and consider alternatives only until a minimally acceptable alternative is found

organizational process model- organizational decisions are made by many individuals/groups, are constrained by routins and SOPs, often follow small incremental choices made in response to short term conditions

Question 39

When are group decisions most effective?

Answer 39

group decisions are better when the task is complex and group members have complementary skills

individual decisions are better when the task is poorly structured, requires a high degree of creativity

group decisions can be undermined by groupthink and group polarization

Question 40

What is groupthink and the methods for avoiding it?

Answer 40

making decision based on desire for unanimity rather than realistic appraisal

risk factors: high level of cohesiveness, strong directive leader, isolated from outside opinions, have to decide quickly

symptoms: illusions of invulnerability and superior morality, colelctive rationalization, excessive sterotyping, self-censorship, presence of self-appointed mindguards (shield group members from contradictory info)

leaders can reduce risk by: remaining neutral in beginning of discussion, encouraging members to express opinions, appointing member to be devils advocate, bring in outside opinions

Question 41

What is group polarization?

Answer 41

tendency of groups to make more extreme (risky or safe) decisions than individual group members would alone

Question 42

What is Hull’s drive reduction theory of motivation?

Answer 42

humans are motivated to maintain a state of homeostasis

unfulfilled physiological need causes an uncomfortable state and drive to restore homeostasis

when behavior is reinforced by satisfying a need, behavior is likely to become a habit

(limitation, doesnt explain drives unrelated to physiological needs)

Question 43

Acquired needs theory of motivation

Answer 43

acquired psychological needs impact motivation and they are shaped by early life experiences

high need for achievement- motivated by desire for success, prefer tasks of moderate difficulty and risk (50/50 chance of accomplishing), prefer not to delegate work, like frequent feedback

need for power- motivated by opportunities to control and influence others, gain status/prestige,

need for affiliation- want to be liked and accepted, motivated by opportunities to form relationships/interact with others

Question 44

Need hierarchy theory of motivation

Answer 44

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs- people have 5 bsaic needs- physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization

lowest unfulfilled need is strongest motivator, once satisfied, next need in hierarchy becomes primary source of motivation

self-actualization is never completely satisfied

Question 45

Two-factor theory of motivation

Answer 45

satisfaction and dissatisfaction are independent and affected by:
hygiene factors (pay, benefits, condition) aka job context factors, fulfill lower-order needs
-when hygiene factors are not adequate workers will be dissatisfied, but having them doesn’t contribute to satisfaction or motivation

motivator factor- aka job content factors(challenge, advancement) fulfill higher-order needs
-when adequate, worker is satisfied and motivated, but absence of these does not lead to dissatisfaction

job enrichment (providing motivator factors) vs. job enlargement (new tasks)

Question 46

job characteristic model of motivation

Answer 46

jobs vary on 5 core job characteristics- skill variety, task identity, task signifciance, autonomy, and feedback

these affect 3 psychological states of workers:
meaningful- adequate skill variety, task identity, task significance
responsible- opportunity to act autonomously
knowledge- job provides regular performance feedback

psych states have positive effects on motivation, satisfaction, performance

Question 47

equity theory of motivation

Answer 47

worker’s level of motivation is in relation to social comparisons

workers compare own inputs and outcomes to other workers doing similar job

when income/output ratio is similar workers experience state of equity (fairness) and motivated to maintain current performance levels

when uneuqal, will be motivated to act in ways to establish equity:
overpayment- realized overpaid compared to other workers, will change behavior to increase output

underpayment: motivate to decrease productivity or seek out better outcomes

underpayment has stronger impact than overpayment on motivation and performacne

Question 48

expectancy theory of motivation

Answer 48

aka VIE theory, job motivation is the result of 3 factors: belief that effort will lead to successful performance expectancy, workers belief that successful performance will result in certain outcomes (instrumentality), value of the outcomes for the worker (valence)

worker’s motivation will be high only when all 3 factors are positive

Question 49

goal-setting theory of motivation

Answer 49

most important contributor to worker’s motivation to achieve goals is the worker’s acceptance of and commitment to those goals

this is maximized when goals are specific and moderately difficult, when workers provided with immediate feedback,

being involved in goal-setting is needed for worker who has high need for achievement or not likely to accept assigned goals

when workers particiapte in goal setting, they tend to be more difficult than what hte supervisor would hve set on their own

group goals result in better performance

Question 50

Lewin’s 3 step model of planned organizational change

Answer 50

3 stages:
unreezing- identifying and reducing forces that are maintaining undesirable status quo and increasing forces that are disrupting the status quo
changing- implementing desired changes to move organization to new state of equilibrium
refreezing- integrating desirable change into organizational values and traditions to stabilize new state of equilibrium and prevent regression to prior undesirable state

Question 51

Cummings and Worleys general model of planned change

Answer 51

incorporates concepts from original 3-step model to have 4 stages of change:
1.entering and contracting phase- org identifies primary problems and people of the org relevant for addressing the problems, identifies an OD practitioner. OD gathers info to understand the problems, works to reach agreement on deisred outcomes and developing contract establishing how OD and other members will work together
2. diagnosing phase- collecting and analyzing diagnostic info and providing feedback to the org about its problems
3. planning and implementing phase-addressing org readiness to change, create a vision of the orgs future, designing internvetions, formulating action plan, managing transition
4. evaluating and institutionalizing phase- evaluating hte implementation and results of OD interventions, deciding if changes should be continued, modified or suspended, initating changes through feedback, corrective actions, training, reward

Question 52

Total quality management

Answer 52

emphasizes continuous improvement through incremental changes to all processes

specific techniques include:
1. quality circles- small groups of employees volunteer to meet regularly and identify problems related to quality, productivity, etc. and discuss methods to resolve these issues. then provide these recs to management

2. benchmarking- continuous process of measuring products, services and practices against major competitors. identify ways to improve org processes, productivity and quality
3. six sigma- provides training for employees and managers in statistics, project management, and problem solving to reduce defect rate of products

Question 53

appreciative inquiry

Answer 53

identifying best aspects of the org and coming up with ideas about how to build on them

4D cycle is the process of appreciate inquiry
discovery
dream
design
delivery/destiny

Question 54

program logic model

Answer 54

a tool to provide stakeholders a road map of the sequence of related events connecting the need for the planned program with the program’s desired results

PLMs are constructed during planning stage of developing a program

usually in form a flow chart that includes following components: inputs (resources needed to produce the program’s outputs), activities (processes needed to produce program’s output), outputs (direct tangible results/products of program), outcomes (changes/benefits expected to be produced by the programs activities/outputs)

Question 55

individual contributors to job satistfaction

Answer 55

job satisfaction is stable over time and across jobs and careers

stability is linked to
1. self-esteem
2. affective disposition
3. genetic predisposition (30% of variability in job satisfaction is genetic)

Question 56

3 types of organizational justice

Answer 56

1. distributive justice-fairness of distribution of resources
2. procedural justice- fairness of procedures used to determine outcomes
3. interactional justice- fairness of how outcomes are communicated to workers
   a. interpersonal- how ppl are treated in interactions
   b. informational- how info is explained

all 3 positively related to job satisfaction

Question 57

3 types of organizational commitment

Answer 57

1. affective commitment- employees emotional attachment to organization
2. continuance commitment- extent to which employee believes they must stay in a job for financial reasons or lack of alternative options
3. normative commitment- extent to which employee is loyal to org and feels obligated to stay

affective is most highly correlated with variety of job outcomes

Question 58

General adaptation syndrome in response to stress

Answer 58

3 stages of how people respond physically to stressors
1. initial alarm stage- CRH-> epinephrine and norepinephrine, ACTH release -> cortisol release to go into fight or flight mode
2. resistance stage- if stressor persists, some body functions return to normal while cortisol continues to circulate at high levels. helps body maintain high energy and to cope with stressor
3. exhaustion- pituitary and adrenal lose ability to maintain high levels of hormones and physiological process begin to break down

prolonged exposure to stress has physical health toll, suppress immune system, increase blood pressure, high levels of cortisol can damage cells in hippocampus impair memory formation

Question 59

resistance to stress

Answer 59

hardiness- increased resistance to harmful effects of stress, hardy ppl have sense of control over their lives, commitment to family and work, view new experiences as challenges rather than threats

organizational based self esteem- persons perception of their value as org members. associated with higher job satisfaction and organizational commitment, less job stress

type A behavior- increased susceptibility to negative effects of stress- chronic sense of time urgency, excessive competitiveness, hostility, increased risk of CHD

Question 60

what big 5 personality traits are most correlated with leader effectiveness?

Answer 60

extraversion .31 and conscientiousness .28