I/O Flashcards
What are the 2 types of subjective measures of performance appraisal?
relative rating scales- require the rater to evaluate the employee by comparing them to other employees
absolute rating scales- rater evaluates employee without considering performance of other employees
What are 2 types of relative ratings scales for performance appraisal?
paried comparison technique- rater compares employee to all other employees in pairs on each dimension of job performance (quality, knowledge, communication), by indicating which employee is best (advant: alleviates central tendency, leniency, and strictness biases; disadvant: very time consuming)
focred distribution method: rater assigns certain percentage of employees to prespecified performance categories for each dimension of performance (advant: alleviates rater biases; disadvant: gives inaccurate info when employees dont match the prespecified categories)
What are the 3 types of absolute rating scales for performance appraisal?
critical incident technique- identifying behaviors that exceptionally poor or exceptionally good, by observing while they work or asking people familiar with the job. list of critical incidents used to evaluate performance (advant: useful info for employee feedback bcuz focused on observable behaviors; disadvant: time-consuming to develop, focuses on extremes, job specific)
graphic rating scale- use likert scale to rate performance on several dimensions (advant: easy to cosntruct; disadvant: vulnerable to rater biases)
behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS)- a type of graphic rating scale, each point is anchored with a description of a specific behavior (advant: reduce rater biases, provide useful info for employee feedback, disdvant: time consuming to develop, job specific)
Define ultimate and actual criterion for performance measures
ultimate criterion- ideal measured that assesses all important contributors to job performance
actual criterion- what a job performance measure actually meausres
What are criterion deficiency and contamination and what do they contribute to?
they contribute to the gap between ultimate and actual criteria for performance measures
criterion deficiency- aspects of performance not assessed by the criterion
criterion contamination- criterion measure is affected by factors unrelated to job performance (like gender or race)
What are the 4 rater biases that occur in performance assessment?
distribution errors- raters consistently using only one part of the rate scale for all employees:
a. central tendency- gives everyone average ratings despite actual performance
b. leniency or strictness biases - consistently gives all employees high or low ratings
halo error- rater’s rating of employee on one dimension affects how they rate the employee on all other dimensions even when unrelated
contrast error- ratings of 1 employee are affected by the performance of a previously rated employee
similarity bias- raters give higher ratings to employees they perceive as similar to themselves
what methods can be used to reduce rater biases?
use relative rating scales (distribution errors), anchoring points on absolute rating scales, provide raters with adequate training
Define behavioral interviews and situational interviews for employee selection
behavioral- based on assumption that past behavior is best predictor of future behavior, asks how they responded to job-related situations in the past
situational interviews- future-oriented, asks how they would respond to hypothetical situations
situational has been found to be more predictive of job performance, means intentions are more predictive than past behaviors
What is the most valid predictor of job performance?
general mental abliity tests, but has greater risk than other predictors of having adverse impact on minority applicants
(followed by interviews, job knowledge tests, integrity tests)
combining a generaly mental ability test with integrity test gives the greatest gain in validity
what personality trait is most predictive of job performance?
conscientiousness
What is an integrity test?
used to predict if applicant is likely to engage in counterproductive behaviors. two types:
overt integrity tests- asks directly about attitudes towards dishonesty/theft and past history of these
personality-based integrity tests- assess personality aspects linked to dishonesty, etc
dont seem to h ve adverse impact on minorities, good predictors of counterproductive behaviors and job performance
overt better at predicting counterproductive behaviors
personality better at predicting job performance
What are assessment centers used for?
evaluating candidates for managerial level jobs
methods used: personality and ability tests, structured interviews, simulations
most commonly used simulation techniques: in-basket exercise and leaderless group discussion
Definite biodata
biographical info that predicts job performance include things like family history, health history, etc
good predictor of performance for variety of jobs
disavant: some lack face validity, applicants may view as irrelevant and invasion of privacy and not answer
Define compensatory and noncompensatory methods of combining info from multiple predictors of job performance
compensatory- appropriate when high schore on 1 or more predictors can compensate for low score on another predictor (clinical prediction, multiple regression)
noncompensatory-used when a low score on one predictor cannot be compensated for by a high score on another predictor
a. multiple cutoff- all predictors adminsitered to all applicants and they must obtain a score above cut off on all predictors to be considered
b. multiple hurdles- measures administered in order, has to score above cutoff on each predictor to be administered the next one
How is incremental validity increased?
what are selection ratio and base rate?
a predictor is most likely to add to decision-making accuracy when its criterion-related validity coefficient is large
but even when low to moderate, can have incremental validity when selection ratio is low and base rate is moderate
selection ratio- percent of job applicants company plans to hire, low ratio is best because means company has more options to choose from
base rate- % of employees who were hired using current selection procedures and are considered successful
How are taylor-russell tables used to determine incremental validity?
gives an estimate of incremental validity for different combos of criterion-related validity, selection ratios, and base rates
Define test unfairness
when members of one group consistently obtain lower scores on a selection test but the score difference is not reflected in differences in scores on a meausre of job performance
define differential validity and the 80% rule
when a selection test has different validity coefficients for members of different groups
80% rule- adverse impact is occurring when the hiring rate for a legally protected group is less than 80% of the hiring rate for hte majority group
What options does an employer have when the court determines their selection test is having an adverse impact?
replace the procedure, modify the procedure, or demonstrate that there is no alternative procedure that would not have an adverse impact and that the procedure is job-related, job relatedness is demonstrated by showing procedure is valid, business necessity, or bona fide occupational qualification (necessary for maintaing normal bussines, BFOQ can be gender, age, religion, but not race)
What are the 4 analyses conducted as part of a needs analysis for developing a training program?
- organizational analysis- identify organizational goals, determine if performance probs due to lack of training, bad selection procedures or something else
- task analysis- identify tasks required to performan the job and the knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics (KSAOs) required to successfully perform each task
- person analysis- identify which employees have deficiencies that need training
- demopgrahic analysis- identify training needs of specific groups of owrkers (young vs old)
What are the 3 factors that affect learning?
- distributed vs. massed practice
- whole-task vs part-task (whole training more effective when task is highly organized and highly interrelated)
- overlearning- learning or practicing beyond point of mastery and results in automaticity
What are the 3 factors that effect trasnfer of training?
- identical elements- more simliar training and work situations are, greater the trasnfer of training
- stimulus variability- trasnfer is maximized when variety of stimuli are used during training- multiple examples, practice in variety of conditions
- support- amount of support received for using new skills on the job
What are the 2 types of training evaluation and their components according to Scriven’s model
- formative evaluation- assists with development and improvement of a program
- summative evaluation- determine whether program outcomes met the program’s goals
components of formative eval:
1. needs assessment
2. evaluability assesssment (determine if evaluation if possible and practical)
3. structured evaluation- define program, its participants, and potentail outcomes
4. implementation evaluation- monitor fidelity of the program
5. process eval- eval how program was delivered
components of sumamtive eval:
1. outcome eval- if program achieved its goals
2. impact eval- identify intended and unintended effects of the program on the org
3. cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis- assess outcomes in terms of costs and benefits
4. secondary analysis-identify new questions or methods not previously addressed
5. meta-analysis- integrate all outcome estimates and derive a summary evaluation
What is dessinger-moseley full scope evaluation model
expanded on scriven’s dichotomy and had 4 types of eval:
1. formative- conducted during development of training program determine what changes are needed
2. summative- conducted soon after the training program to determine immediate effects
3. confirmative- conducted at later time to evaluate long-term effects
4. meta-evaluation- ongoing process done during and after the first 3 evals to assess reliability and validity
What is kirkpatrick’s evaluation model
4 levels of training program eval from least to most formative:
1.reaction criteria- trainees impressions of training
2. learning criteria- how well trainees acquired the info/skills
3. behavior criteria- degree to which trainee perofrmance improved
4. results criteria- effects of training on ROI, satisfaction, other org outcomes
Describe Super’s life space, life span career theory
5 stages of career development: growth (1-14), exploration (15-24), establishment (25-44), maintenance (45-64), disengagement (65+)
life-space- various life roles a person assumes at different times and in different contexts
life-career rainbow- relationship between persons life stages and major life roles over lifespan
self-concept- how people perceive themselves and their situations, develops over lifespan, result of interactions of internal and external factors
self-concept influences and is influenced by a persons career development process and is major determinant of career decisions
Holland’s theory of career choice
6 personality and work environment types (RIASEC)- realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, conventional
types arranged around a hexagon
high degree of congruence between personality and the characteristics of the work environment
most predictive of job outcomes when person’s score indications high degree of differentiation (high score on one personality type and low on all the others)
Dawis and Lofquist’s theory of work adjustment
congruence between characteristics of the person and the work-environment predict job tenure which is primary indicator of work adjustment
tenure is result of 2 factors:
satisfaction- employee’s satisfaction with the job (employee’s needs and reinforcers provided by the job)
satisfactoriness- employers satisfaction with the employee ( how well employees skills math job requirements)
Tiedman’s career decisio-making model
vocational identity development- ongoing decision-making process linked to erikson’s psychosocial stages of ego identity development
2 phases of career decision-making:
1. anticipation phase- exploration, crystallization, choice, and clarification stages
2. implementation- induction, reformation, integration stages
krumboltz’s social learning theory of career decision-making
4 factors contribute to career decisions:
1. genetic endowment & special abilities
2. environmental conditions and events beyond person’s control
3. instrumental and associative learning experiences
4. task approach skills (problem-solving skills, work habits)
self-observation and worldview generalizations also guide a person’s career decisions and behaviors
driver and brousseau’s career concept model
four career concepts:
1. linear career- ppl motivated by desire for power and achievement, upaward motion, infrequent career changes
2. expert career concept- motivated by desire to have job security, career is life long committment, develop expertise, mastery of skills more important than moving up
3.spiral career concept- motivated by need for personal growth, lateral moves across similar positions every 5-10 years
4. transitory career concept- desire for variety and independence, lateral movements across different occupations ever 2-4 years
Taylor’s scientific management organizational theory
to maximize organizational efficiency and productivity managers must: use scientific methods to identify best way to do a job, select workers scientifically and trained appropriately,equal division of labor, cooperate with workers
workers are motivated by primary desire for economic gain, financial incentives should be linked to productivity
Weber’s bureaucracy organizational theory
bureaucracy an impersonal and rational way to ensure operations are orderly and efficient. essential elements of a bureaucratic organziation are: division of labor, well-defined hierarchy of authority, formal rules and procedures, employment decisions based on competence and merit, written records, separation of ownership and management
mayo’s human relations approach organizational theory
research done at Hawthorne power plant
changed various physical work conditions to identify which ones maximized productivity
productivity increased regardless of what changes were made- found to be due to just the attention the workers got from being research participants - called this the Hawthorne effect
social factors determined to be more important for motivation and productivity than physical work conditions
mcgregor’s Theory X/Theory Y organizational theory
superior’s beliefs about subordinates have self-fulfilling prophecy effect
theory X supervisors- believe subordinates are inherently lazy, resist change, dislike resonsiblity, so supervisor must be directive and controlling
Theory Y- subordinates enjoy work, self-directed, internally motivated, seek responsibilty, supervisor’s role is to provide conditions that allow them to fulfill their own goals
Katz and Kahn’s open-system theory
organizations are open-systems- undergo cycle of events, act to maintain homeostasis, acquire new resources, function according to equifinality and multifinality
equifinality- system can achieve same goal or outcome in multiple ways
multifinality- system can achieve dissimilar goals or outcomes from the same initial conditions
What are programmed and nonprogrammed organizational decisions?
programmed- repetitive and routine decisions, governed by rules, policies, and procedures. often made by lower level personnel (hiring, ordering, billing)
nonprogrammed- non-repetitive, complex, require unique or creative solutions, rely on the decision-makers judgment and problem solving skills. usually made by upper-level personnel, include decisions related to developing new products or services ,responding to legal issues
What are the 3 organizational decision-making models?
rational model- aka classical model, decision-makers choose the optimal alternative after identifying and evaluating all possible alternatives in objective, deliberative, and orderly way
bounded rationality model- recognizes rational decision-making is limited by organizational and individual factors such as time restrictions, limited access to info, cognitive abilities. because of this people often “satisfice” rather than optimize and consider alternatives only until a minimally acceptable alternative is found
organizational process model- organizational decisions are made by many individuals/groups, are constrained by routins and SOPs, often follow small incremental choices made in response to short term conditions
When are group decisions most effective?
group decisions are better when the task is complex and group members have complementary skills
individual decisions are better when the task is poorly structured, requires a high degree of creativity
group decisions can be undermined by groupthink and group polarization
What is groupthink and the methods for avoiding it?
making decision based on desire for unanimity rather than realistic appraisal
risk factors: high level of cohesiveness, strong directive leader, isolated from outside opinions, have to decide quickly
symptoms: illusions of invulnerability and superior morality, colelctive rationalization, excessive sterotyping, self-censorship, presence of self-appointed mindguards (shield group members from contradictory info)
leaders can reduce risk by: remaining neutral in beginning of discussion, encouraging members to express opinions, appointing member to be devils advocate, bring in outside opinions
What is group polarization?
tendency of groups to make more extreme (risky or safe) decisions than individual group members would alone
What is Hull’s drive reduction theory of motivation?
humans are motivated to maintain a state of homeostasis
unfulfilled physiological need causes an uncomfortable state and drive to restore homeostasis
when behavior is reinforced by satisfying a need, behavior is likely to become a habit
(limitation, doesnt explain drives unrelated to physiological needs)
Acquired needs theory of motivation
acquired psychological needs impact motivation and they are shaped by early life experiences
high need for achievement- motivated by desire for success, prefer tasks of moderate difficulty and risk (50/50 chance of accomplishing), prefer not to delegate work, like frequent feedback
need for power- motivated by opportunities to control and influence others, gain status/prestige,
need for affiliation- want to be liked and accepted, motivated by opportunities to form relationships/interact with others
Need hierarchy theory of motivation
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs- people have 5 bsaic needs- physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization
lowest unfulfilled need is strongest motivator, once satisfied, next need in hierarchy becomes primary source of motivation
self-actualization is never completely satisfied
Two-factor theory of motivation
satisfaction and dissatisfaction are independent and affected by:
hygiene factors (pay, benefits, condition) aka job context factors, fulfill lower-order needs
-when hygiene factors are not adequate workers will be dissatisfied, but having them doesn’t contribute to satisfaction or motivation
motivator factor- aka job content factors(challenge, advancement) fulfill higher-order needs
-when adequate, worker is satisfied and motivated, but absence of these does not lead to dissatisfaction
job enrichment (providing motivator factors) vs. job enlargement (new tasks)
job characteristic model of motivation
jobs vary on 5 core job characteristics- skill variety, task identity, task signifciance, autonomy, and feedback
these affect 3 psychological states of workers:
meaningful- adequate skill variety, task identity, task significance
responsible- opportunity to act autonomously
knowledge- job provides regular performance feedback
psych states have positive effects on motivation, satisfaction, performance
equity theory of motivation
worker’s level of motivation is in relation to social comparisons
workers compare own inputs and outcomes to other workers doing similar job
when income/output ratio is similar workers experience state of equity (fairness) and motivated to maintain current performance levels
when uneuqal, will be motivated to act in ways to establish equity:
overpayment- realized overpaid compared to other workers, will change behavior to increase output
underpayment: motivate to decrease productivity or seek out better outcomes
underpayment has stronger impact than overpayment on motivation and performacne
expectancy theory of motivation
aka VIE theory, job motivation is the result of 3 factors: belief that effort will lead to successful performance expectancy, workers belief that successful performance will result in certain outcomes (instrumentality), value of the outcomes for the worker (valence)
worker’s motivation will be high only when all 3 factors are positive
goal-setting theory of motivation
most important contributor to worker’s motivation to achieve goals is the worker’s acceptance of and commitment to those goals
this is maximized when goals are specific and moderately difficult, when workers provided with immediate feedback,
being involved in goal-setting is needed for worker who has high need for achievement or not likely to accept assigned goals
when workers particiapte in goal setting, they tend to be more difficult than what hte supervisor would hve set on their own
group goals result in better performance
Lewin’s 3 step model of planned organizational change
3 stages:
unreezing- identifying and reducing forces that are maintaining undesirable status quo and increasing forces that are disrupting the status quo
changing- implementing desired changes to move organization to new state of equilibrium
refreezing- integrating desirable change into organizational values and traditions to stabilize new state of equilibrium and prevent regression to prior undesirable state
Cummings and Worleys general model of planned change
incorporates concepts from original 3-step model to have 4 stages of change:
1.entering and contracting phase- org identifies primary problems and people of the org relevant for addressing the problems, identifies an OD practitioner. OD gathers info to understand the problems, works to reach agreement on deisred outcomes and developing contract establishing how OD and other members will work together
2. diagnosing phase- collecting and analyzing diagnostic info and providing feedback to the org about its problems
3. planning and implementing phase-addressing org readiness to change, create a vision of the orgs future, designing internvetions, formulating action plan, managing transition
4. evaluating and institutionalizing phase- evaluating hte implementation and results of OD interventions, deciding if changes should be continued, modified or suspended, initating changes through feedback, corrective actions, training, reward
Total quality management
emphasizes continuous improvement through incremental changes to all processes
specific techniques include:
1. quality circles- small groups of employees volunteer to meet regularly and identify problems related to quality, productivity, etc. and discuss methods to resolve these issues. then provide these recs to management
- benchmarking- continuous process of measuring products, services and practices against major competitors. identify ways to improve org processes, productivity and quality
- six sigma- provides training for employees and managers in statistics, project management, and problem solving to reduce defect rate of products
appreciative inquiry
identifying best aspects of the org and coming up with ideas about how to build on them
4D cycle is the process of appreciate inquiry
discovery
dream
design
delivery/destiny
program logic model
a tool to provide stakeholders a road map of the sequence of related events connecting the need for the planned program with the program’s desired results
PLMs are constructed during planning stage of developing a program
usually in form a flow chart that includes following components: inputs (resources needed to produce the program’s outputs), activities (processes needed to produce program’s output), outputs (direct tangible results/products of program), outcomes (changes/benefits expected to be produced by the programs activities/outputs)
individual contributors to job satistfaction
job satisfaction is stable over time and across jobs and careers
stability is linked to
1. self-esteem
2. affective disposition
3. genetic predisposition (30% of variability in job satisfaction is genetic)
3 types of organizational justice
- distributive justice-fairness of distribution of resources
- procedural justice- fairness of procedures used to determine outcomes
- interactional justice- fairness of how outcomes are communicated to workers
a. interpersonal- how ppl are treated in interactions
b. informational- how info is explained
all 3 positively related to job satisfaction
3 types of organizational commitment
- affective commitment- employees emotional attachment to organization
- continuance commitment- extent to which employee believes they must stay in a job for financial reasons or lack of alternative options
- normative commitment- extent to which employee is loyal to org and feels obligated to stay
affective is most highly correlated with variety of job outcomes
General adaptation syndrome in response to stress
3 stages of how people respond physically to stressors
1. initial alarm stage- CRH-> epinephrine and norepinephrine, ACTH release -> cortisol release to go into fight or flight mode
2. resistance stage- if stressor persists, some body functions return to normal while cortisol continues to circulate at high levels. helps body maintain high energy and to cope with stressor
3. exhaustion- pituitary and adrenal lose ability to maintain high levels of hormones and physiological process begin to break down
prolonged exposure to stress has physical health toll, suppress immune system, increase blood pressure, high levels of cortisol can damage cells in hippocampus impair memory formation
resistance to stress
hardiness- increased resistance to harmful effects of stress, hardy ppl have sense of control over their lives, commitment to family and work, view new experiences as challenges rather than threats
organizational based self esteem- persons perception of their value as org members. associated with higher job satisfaction and organizational commitment, less job stress
type A behavior- increased susceptibility to negative effects of stress- chronic sense of time urgency, excessive competitiveness, hostility, increased risk of CHD
what big 5 personality traits are most correlated with leader effectiveness?
extraversion .31 and conscientiousness .28
