Life Science, ATI Manual Flashcards
Macromolecules are what
carbohydrates, nucleic acids, proteins, lipids
anabolic vs catabolic reactions
anabolic REQUIRES energy (build into bigger molecules), catabolic RELEASE energy (large molecules broken down into smaller)
Think “RELEASE THE CAT!”
endothermic vs exothermic reactions
both are chemical reactions
“endo” - absorb heat
“exo” - release heat
main source of energy (macromolecule)
carbohydrate
carbohydrates broken down into _______.
GLUCOSE (or the oxidation of carb)
glucose broken down via __________.
GLYCOLYSIS (respiration/fermentation)
CH₂0 is an example of what macromolecule
carbohydrate (look at chemical structure - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen)
name 3 examples of monosaccharides. also, what are monosaccharides?
they are simple sugars. disaccharides are also simple sugars, just with two monomers of sugar instead of one.
examples: glucose, fructose, galactose
monosaccharides = one (mono) carbon for every water molecule
what’s a monomer
a small molecule. can be linked together to make something even bigger.
many monomers make up a _________.
polymer!
a compound of large molecules - repeating monomers.
which macromolecule is NOT a polymer?
lipids!
carbs, proteins, and nucleic acids are polymers.
lipids are hydrophilic or phobic?
hydrophobic!
don’t mix (or bond) well with water
what kind of bonds do lipids have in abundance?
C-H bonds… similar to “hydrocarbons” in this way. hydrocarbon is how it looks… look at the spelling… it is a substance consisting only of hydrogen and carbon.
role of lipids? give a few examples.
energy storage and structural functions
examples: fats, phospholipids, steroids, waxes.
made of long chains of fatty acids… also what is a fatty acid?
FATS (fats are triglycerides) tri - meaning 3… made of long chains of fatty acids, which are 3 fatty acids bound to a glycerol.
fatty acids are chains with reduced carbon at one end and a carboxylic acid group at the other.
describe a phospholipid
lipids that have a phosphate group!!
NO FATTY ACID
Glyceride is what?
another type of lipid. EXAMPLE?
Fat and oil are examples. Formed from fatty acids + glycerol.
Glycerol is a type of alcohol.
Glycerol is a type of
ALCOHOL
macromolecules formed from amino acids?
PROTEINS! aka POLYPEPTIDES - which are many peptides linked together. Result of a certain type of reaction.
A peptide is a compound of 2 or more amino acids.
Peptide reactions are a result of
CONDENSATION REACTION. Results in a LOSS of water when two molecules are joined together.
Think when rain falls from a cloud, the result is condensation, or the cloud’s LOSS of water.
Hydrolysis reaction
opposite of condensation reaction. water is ADDED to the reaction.
Peptide is a
compound of 2 or more amino acids.
How are amino acids formed?
formed by the partial hydrolysis of protein, which forms an amide bond - this PARTIAL hydrolysis involves an amine group and a carboxylic acid.
When talking about the macromolecule PROTEIN… chemically, what determines the properties of the protein
the “R” group.
Made of several components…
-COOH which is the carboxylic acid
-NH₂ which is the amine group
- a central carbon atom with attached hydrogen
- an attached “R” group
what synthesizes and stores RNA
NUCLEOLUS
Ribosome do what
synthesize proteins from amino acids. Can be thousands. Some are mobile, some are embedded in Rough ER.
Golgi apparatus (complex)
synthesizes proteins and other materials headed OUTSIDE of the cell.
Vacuoles
Sacs for storage, digestion, waste removal. Animal and plant cells both have.
Think: “vacuum” what does a vacuum store
Endoplasmic reticulum
2 types
Rough ER: rough is actually “rough”, think bumpy, it has ribosomes on it.
Smooth ER: does not have ribosomes on surface. Network that comprises the transport system of a cell.
Mitochondrion
Some cells have few, some have many. FUNCTION: GENERATE ATP, also involved in CELL GROWTH and DEATH.
*Contain their OWN DNA (wow, separate from DNA in nucleus)
4 in-depth functions mitochondria
cell energy, cell signaling, cellular differentiation, cell cycle/growth regulation.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION OCCURS HERE!!
Involved in mitosis and cell cycle
Centrosome
Involved in cellular division
Centrioles
know difference between mitosis and meiosis
IN MEIOSIS, PHASES HAPPEN TWICE! Meiosis encourages genetic diversity.
Result at end of meiosis 2 is four daughter cells with different sets of chromosomes. Daughter cells are haploid, which means they contain half the genetic material of parent cell. “Haploid sounds like half”
polypeptides are what
proteins - they’re many peptides linked together… proteins are formed from amino acids.
what do enzymes do
accelerate the speed at which specific reactions approach equilibrium. they’re never USED UP … they can be used AGAIN and AGAIN. Constant source of energy accelerant for cells
reactants aka
SUBSTRATES… the key in the lock analogy - the substrate has to be a match for the active site on the enzyme
Nucleic acids are what? composed of what?
nucleic acids are macromolecules composed of NUCLEOTIDES.
Hydrolysis is a reaction in which what happens?
water is broken down into hydrogen cations (H or H+) and hydroxide anions (OH or OH-) used to break down shorter strings of RNA/DNA (nucleic acids broken down by enzymes) into oligonucleotides. smallest unit is called nucleosides.
fancy name for DNA/RNA
macromolecular nucleic acid polymers
how are RNA/DNA formed? break it down
formed from nucleotides, which are monomeric units joined by phosphodiester bonds.
To replicate DNA - cells require energy in the form of
ATP to synthesize nucleotides for DNA and amino acids for proteins.
these store info and energy and are also important catalysts (not enzymes)
Nucleic acids
example: RNA catalyzes transfer of DNA genetic info INTO protein coded info.
this is an RNA nucleotide
ATP
what is used to form the nucleic acids?
NUCLEOTIDES
Nucleotides are made of a five-carbon sugar and what else?
five-carbon sugar such as ribose or deoxyribose, a nitrogenous base, and one or more phosphates.
Nuclotides with more than one phosphate have this special ability
CAN STORE ENERGY IN THEIR BONDS
Chromosomes consist of these units of genetic info
GENES.
Genes are made up of DNA, a nucleic acid located in cell nucleus. (also found in mitochondria).
DNA structure
consists of nucleotides - consist of a five-carbon sugar (pentose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
Two bases pair up to form the rungs of ladder (double helix is twisted ladder shape)
Hydrogen bonds attach the bases to each other which can easily be dismantled so REPLICATION can occur.
4 types of _____ bases (DNA)
nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T). There are about 3 billion bases in human DNA, they’re mostly the same in everyone, but their order is different. The ORDER of these bases that creates diversity!
pairs with DNA
A –> T
C –> G
5 DNA bases in DNA and RNA are categorized as
PYRIMIDINE or PURINE
PYRMIDINE bases are
cytosine, thymine, and uracil.
six-sided, single ring shape
PURINE bases are
guanine and adenine
“GA” think… remember “GA” as in GA-GA… because a “Baby is ‘PURE’”
two attached rings, one has 5 sides and other has 6 sides.
tip: if it ends in “OSINE” its formed from a
PURINE base.
tip: if it ends in “IDINE” its formed from a
PYRMIDINE base.
what’s a codon
groups of 3 nucleotides on the messenger RNA, looks like 3 rungs on a ladder.
a CODON has the “CODE” for a single amino acid.
64 codons, 20 amino acids.
Examples: AAA or AAG (both code for lysine).
how do you read this:
AAAUCUUCGU
read in groups of 3. look for the start and stop codon.
what is the start codon
AUG
what are the stop codons
UAA, UGA, UAG (all start with U)
When replication starts, what happens to the DNA?
It unwinds.
This controls DNA replication
enzymes, specifically HELICASE
“origin of replication” is used to refer what?
where the splitting “ORIGINATES” or starts when hydrogen bonds begin to be split during DNA replication
“replication fork”
the portion of the DNA that is unwound to be replicated
Each strand of DNA is TRANSCRIBED by
an mRNA. It copies the DNA onto itself, base by base in a complementary manner. Exception is that URACIL REPLACES THYMINE.
URACIL replaces what? during DNA replication
THYMINE
mRNA function. also there are different types of RNA, what are they?
acts as a helper to DNA and carries out a number of other functions.
mRNA - carries copy of a strand of DNA and transports it rom nucleus to the cytoplasm
tRNA - helps in translation process (what “t” stands for)
rRNA - hasn’t changed much. used to study relationships of organisms.
what is transcription?
process in which RNA polymerase copies DNA into RNA.
what is translation?
process whereby ribosomes use transcribed RNA to put together the needed protein.
Big difference between DNA and RNA (structure wise)
RNA has ribose sugar while
DNA has deoxyribose sugar
bases for RNA are A,G,C, and U
Uracil only found in RNA
Thymine only found in DNA
RNA = single strand (one “backbone”)
DNA = two strands
RNA supports the functions carried out by DNA
Mendel’s Laws
2 laws
Law of Segregation: there are 2 alleles and half of the total number of alleles are contributed by each parent organism.
Law of Independent Assortment: states are passed on randomly and not influenced by other traits.
Punnett Square
shows how alleles combine from genes to form various PHENOTYPES (“ph” for “physical” manifestation of genes)
collectively, all genes form the ______ of a person.
genotype. includes genes that aren’t expressed (aka recessive genes).
what is an allele?
a variation of a gene AKA a TRAIT
AKA a trait
an allele
Locus refers to the
location of a gene or alleles
in a Punnett square, uppercase letter means
DOMINANT trait
LOWER CASE MEANS recessive trait
DD and dd are homozygous pairs or heterozygous
HOMOZYGOUS because they’re the same. You’re much more familiar with root words so this should be pretty obvious.
Genetic crosses are a fancy name for
the possible combinations of alleles.. are represented using Punnett squares.
a MONOHYBRID CROSS refers to a cross involving only one trait.
If one parent has a pair of dominant genes (DD) and the other has a pair of recessive (dd) genes, the recessive trait can or cannot be expressed?
cannot! the next generation will receive the resulting crosses - all (Dd) genotypes
If they ask the percentage if heterozygous plant pods are crossed, just do the math! get a paper and draw a Punnett square.
It’s asking if you have Dd and Dd and they cross… what’s the outcome for the generation.
50% heterozygous green
25% homozygous green
25% homozygous yellow
In a dihybrid cross between two traits with two homozygous alleles (DD) and (dd)
generation will be 100% heterozygous. however in the next generation you’ll get a 9:3:3:1 ratio (don’t ask pg 120)
what’s co-dominance
refers to expression of both alleles so that both traits are shown. ABO blood system example of co-dominant system
what’s incomplete dominance
when both dominant and recessive genes are expressed, resulting in a phenotype that is a mixture of the two.
Example: snapdragons can be red, pink, or white
Red - RR
White - rr
Pink - Rr
Polygenic inheritance
refers to environmental influence on development, not just genes.
multiple alleles
a gene with more than 2 possible alleles known as a multiple allele. Blood type for example, can be A,B, or O.
Pieces of an atom
nucleus is positively charged with protons, electrons orbit the nucleus and are negatively charged.
atoms bond together to make
molecules
ion
if the # of protons and electrons in an atom is not equal, the atom has a positive or negative charge.
ion gains electrons it becomes
negative, called an ANION
ion loses electrons it becomes
positive, called a CATION
this is formed between ions with opposite charges
ionic bond, must be oppositely charged
neutral particles into charged particles
called ionization
a compound is made when
two or more different types of atoms bind together chemically
chemical bonding defined
a union between the electron structures of atoms
covalent bonding defined
atoms that share electrons have what is called a covalent bond. electrons shared equally have a non-polar bond, while electrons shared unequally have a polar bond
hydrogen bonding defined
the atom of a molecule interacts with a hydrogen atom in the same area. Hydrogen bonds can also form between two different parts of the same molecule, as in the structure of DNA and other large molecules.
number of PROTONS in the nucleus of an atom
atomic number
if the atomic number is equal to the number of electrons, what kind of charge does atom have?
neutral!
what’s atomic mass
TOTAL number of protons AND neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. we don’t weight the electrons because they weight so little it’s irrelevant
isotope is stable, what’s that mean?
have not been observed to decay (non-radioactive)
isotope is unstable, it means…
its radioactive! nuclei is unusable and can undergo spontaneous nuclear reactions, which results in particles or radiation being emitted.
electrons are subatomic particles that travel how?
orbit the nucleus
referred to as layers, shells, or clouds
electrons
part of lepton family
electrons
outermost shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as the
valence shell - electrons in this outermost ring are called valence electrons
bonding behavior of electrons determined by
valence electrons, and how many electrons in the valence shell
something called a “dipole” is created when
one atom exerts slightly more force in a bond than another. (electronegativity)
In electronegativity, if the electronegative difference between 2 atoms is small, the atoms will form a what? if the difference is large, it will form a what? what will form if NO electronegativity?
polar covalent bond if small.
if large difference, ionic bond will occur.
a pure non polar covalent bond.
most basic type of matter is
an element - CANNOT BE BROKEN DOWN.
smallest UNIT of an element is
an ATOM
A chemical compound of 2 or more types of elements is called a
COMPOUND
most elements occur in single-atom form, but some occur naturally in pairs - called what?
diatomic elements
examples: hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen
in the periodic table, the horizontal rows are referred to as what? the columns?
the rows are called PERIODS
the columns are called GROUPS/FAMILIES… you’ll notice in groups, they have the same number of electrons in outer shell, or same configuration of electrons (look at the group number - number above column.. 2nd digit tells u how many electrons in outer shell)
orientation of periodic table… how is it arranged?
METALS are situated at left end of periodic table (make up majority of table)
METALLOIDS ARE IN THE MIDDLE
NONMETALS are located to the right
in the periodic table, the highest group is group 18, or the noble gases. each element in this group has a full complement of electrons in its outer level… making the reactivity ___________.
LOW!!!
Reactivity is
the tendency of a substance to engage in chemical reactions
periodicity is
allows us to predict an elements reactivity based on its position on the periodic table
high numbered groups on the right side of the periodic table have a fuller complement of electrons in their outer levels, making them less likely to
REACT!
difference between intensive properties vs extensive properties
different properties of a material ie melting point, color, hardness, weight, energy, electrical charge etc etc
these terms just categorize properties…
intensive properties don’t change if quality/size of property changes (ie temperature)
extensive properties change if quality/size of sample changes (ie electrical charge)
physical properties are
any property of matter that can be observed/measured
specific heat means what
it’s the heat capacity per unit mass. different elements take different amounts of heat energy to raise their temperature
thermal equilibrium
no net heat transfer
conduction
form of heat transfer that requires contact.
example of a chemical property changing into a different chemical is what kind of property
a chemical property
hydrogen bonds are what compared to ionic and covalent bonds
WEAKER
water molecule, polar or nonpolar
positively charged on hydrogen end and partially negatively charged on other end (oxygen end).
if I say hydrogen is oxidized.. what’s that mean?
it’s number of electrons is REDUCED!!
hydrogen bonds are an important quality of water -
giving it its high specific heat, high heat of vaporization, its solvent qualities, its adhesiveness, cohesiveness, hydrophobic qualities, ability to float in solid form.
passive transport mechanisms
things like diffusion, osmosis… NO energy required from the cell
Diffusion and examples
occurs when particles are transported from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration
Examples: gas exchange - Co2 and O2
Facilitated diffusion
occurs when specific molecules are transported by a specific carrier protein
Carrier proteins
vary in terms of size, shape, and charge. Glucose and amino acids are examples of substances transported by carrier proteins.
Osmosis
diffusion of WATER through a semi-permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to one of higher solute concentration.
A plant that swells because of water retention is said to be
TURGID
solids, liquids, gases… strongest bonds are between
SOLIDS
for solid to become liquid, solid must pass the melting point to overcome the what?
latent heat of fusion
for liquid to become a gas, heat must be added at the boiling point to overcome the what?
latent heat of vaporization
is water more or less dense in a solid state?
less dense! why it floats!
solid to gas conversion is known as
SUBLIMATION
gas to solid conversion is known as
deposition
atmospheric pressure can do what to the evaporation process?
decrease or increase it
accelerates chemical reactions
catalysts
decreases chemical reaction rates
inhibitors
in chemical equations, what are the numbers on the left side of the arrow called? the right side?
left side called the reactants
right side called the products
the arrow indicates the reaction or change
the number BEFORE the element is called the coefficient
an “unbalanced equation” is one that does not follow the
law of conservation of mass, which states that matter can only be changed, not created
what’s the octet rule
describes the tendency of atoms to gain or lose electrons until their outer energy levels contain EIGHT. can result in new products being generated which were not present in isolation before reaction occurred.
reactant is what
a substance undergoing change
reagent is what
is a partner in the reaction less transformed than the reactant (such as a catalyst)
product is a what
final result of the reaction
five basic chemical reactions are
combination, decomposition, single replacement, double replacement, and combustion reactions
what’s a combination reaction
two or more reactants combine to form a single product or A + B = C
also called SYNTHESIS or ADDITION REACTIONS
what’s a decomposition reaction
chemical reactions where a single compound breaks down into component parts or simpler compounds.
layman’s terms: breaks down one compound into two or more compounds or substances that are different from original.
Ex: A ——> B + C
different types
most are ENDOTHERMIC
separation processes include filtration, crystallization, distillation, chromatography
what’s a single replacement reaction
aka single substitution, displacement, or replacement reactions
occur when one reactant is displaced by another to form the final product
Ex: A + BC –> B + AC
can be cationic or anionic
what’s a single replacement reaction
aka single substitution, displacement, or replacement reactions
occur when one reactant is displaced by another to form the final product
Ex: A + BC –> B + AC
can be cationic or anionic
what’s a double replacement reaction
double displacement, double replacement, substitution, metathesis, or ion exchange reactions occur
when ions or bonds are exchanged by two compounds to form different compounds
AC + BD —> AD + BC
two different products formed
known as metathesis reactions - oxidation number of atoms does not change
what is a combustion reaction
involves fuel and an oxidant that produces heat sometimes light!
it’s an exothermic process, releasing energy.
Examples of exothermic energy
heat, light, electricity, sound
what are catalysts
change rate of reaction without changing their form - increase reaction rate by decreasing the number of steps it takes to form products.
mass stays the same.
minimum amount required to get a reaction started
activation energy
pH stands for
potential of hydrogen
what is pH
is a measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a substance in terms of the number of moles of H+ per liter of solution. All substances fall between 0 and 14. Lower pH indicates higher H+ concentration (acid) while a higher pH indicates lower H+ concentration.
pH of pure water
7.
Anything lower than 7 is acidic.
Anything higher than 7 is a base.
Bases
bitter taste, soapy/slippery texture to the touch, in reacting with acids - produces salts
AKA as ALKALINE
yield HYDROXIDE IONS (instead of hydrogen ions)
Acids
the ionization of H atoms.
carboxylic acids are also characterized by ionization, but of the O atoms.
Other properties: have sour taste, change color of litmus paper to red, produce gaseous H2 in reaction with some metals, produce salt precipates in reaction with bases
The strength of an acid or base is a reflection of the degree to which its atoms
ionize in a solution!
when only a few atoms ionize, the acid is WEAK.
reactivity can also indicate the strength of an acid/base.
Salts
formed from acid/base reactions. Calcium chloride, potassium nitrate, sodium nitrate are examples
Salt and water can react to form a base and an acid. This is called a _______ reaction.
hydrolysis reaction
What characteristic of an element determines its specific isotope?
number of neutrons!
(number of protons determines what element it is)
Its sugar is more reduced than DNA’s sugar
RNA
The taxonomy ranks run from largest to smallest:
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
King Philip Came Over For Great Spaghetti
To calculate the atomic mass,
we must sum the number of protons and the number of neutrons inside of the nucleus
What type of cells result from mitosis?
Mitosis produces two diploid daughter cells that have the same genetic material as the original mother cell.
The presence of which hormone would NOT cause an increase in water retention?
ANP, or Atrial Natiuretic Peptide is a hormone released in response to increased blood volume and pressure that produces vasodilation. As a consequence of this vasodilation, the excretion of both sodium and water increases in order to return to the homeostatic conditions prior to increased blood volume and pressure. Because excretion of water increases, ANP causes a decrease in water retention and not an increase.
Which of the following hormones are secreted directly by the hypothalamus?
dopamine
