Liberalism Core Themes

Question 1

How many states across the world does the UN class as ‘liberal democracies’?

Answer 1

2/3rds

Question 2

What religious movement formed the roots of liberalism?

Answer 2

The Reformation, which is a religious movement from the late 15th and 16th century. These founders of ‘protestant’ Christianity argued that individuals seeking to communicate with God no longer needed to rely on priests and religious figures due to wider literacy rates and the advent of the printing press. Therefore, Christianity could now assume a more individualistic character

Question 3

What movement sought to extend the Reformation into political spheres and what is it?

Answer 3

The Enlightenment: a belief in reason rather than faith, and thus promoted relentless debate and inquiry, questioning and scrutinizing almost anything that was previously unthinkingly accepted

Question 4

What were some of the ‘radical ideas’ that came from the Enlightenment?

Answer 4

-each individual has free will
-each individual is the best judge of their own interests
-each individual’s life should be shaped by the individual’s actions and decisions.

Question 5

Who is John Locke considered as?

Answer 5

The father of liberalism

Question 6

What did John Locke start to question?

Answer 6

the relationship between individuals and governments, seeking to define why and how individuals defer to those who governed them.

Question 7

What idea did the Enlightenment destroy?

Answer 7

a monarchial government had been put in place by God and a king’s decisions should be accepted by the kings ‘subjects’; a doctrine known as the divine right of kings

Question 8

What is John Locke’s Mechanistic theory?

Answer 8

This argues that mankind is rational and therefore capable of devising a state that reflects mankind’s needs. It was a pointed rebuff to the divine right of kings, which argued the state reflected God’s will and that obedience to the state was a religious duty.

Question 9

What did John Locke believe about human nature and society (what it was like before the state)?

Answer 9

1. Prior to the state’s existence, there was a natural society, which served mankind’s interests tolerably well. This was known as ‘state of nature’.
2. Due to his upbeat view on human nature and belief of rationalism, he believed the state of nature was underpinned by ‘natural laws, liberties and rights’. Tis is not a state people are keen to leave at any cost, so the alternative ‘state of law’ must improve upon the tolerable situation by resolving disputes more efficiently

Question 10

What did John Locke believe about the state?

Answer 10

1. Denied the state was part of God’s creation and the divine right of kings and rejected that ordinary people were subjects with a quasi religious obligation
2. A true state is one created by man-kind to serve mankind’s interests
3. The state of law would be legitimate, only if it respected natural rights/laws and embodied them, ensuring individuals were never worse off than in the state of nature
4. Locke’s ideal state would always reflect the principle that its citizens had voluntarily consented to accept the state’s ruling in return for the state improving their situation (social contract theory)
5. Because of its contractual nature, the state should be limited to allow for ongoing consent; this is reinforced by dispersal of powers.

Question 11

Core ideas of liberalism: what do liberals think of human nature?

Answer 11

1. Liberals deny the bleak view that humans are deeply flawed/imperfect and have a more optimistic view.
2. They argue humans have the ability to bring about progress and an unending ability to forge greater human happiness.
3. They believe individuals are guided by reason and rationalism so our innate reason is in debate and discussion in order to be able to shape our own destiny

Question 12

What are humans naturally drawn to and why?

Answer 12

4. We are naturally self seeking and self serving- hence an association with egotistical individualism and naturally are drawn to situations where they are in charge of their own destiny

Question 13

What prevents human selfishness from destroying human nature

Answer 13

5. However, it’s our rationality that stops us leading to destructive selfishness and competition. We are both egotistical and reasonable, making us sensitive to men and women

Question 14

What is egotistical individualism

Answer 14

a belief that humans are naturally drawn to the advancement of their own selfish interests and the pursuit of their own happiness

Question 15

Core ideas of liberalism: what do liberals believe about society?

Answer 15

1. belief of a natural society with natural laws and rights, even if there wasn’t a state
2. the main purpose of society is to facilitate individualism as each person seeks freedom. Any society that denies individualism is dysfunctional
3. the right to property is seen as particularly important as it’s seen as a tangible expression of an individual within society.

Question 16

Core ideas of liberalism: What do liberals believe about the economy?

Answer 16

1. devotion to private property is at the centre of the economy as it’s seen as a natural right. Therefore it’s inevitable they should support capitalism
2. liberalism has been strongly associated with private enterprise and ownership
3. Adam Smith argued if obstacles to free market trade were removed, the ‘invisible hand’ of market forces would guide traders to success, resulting wealth would ‘trickle down’ to everyone

Question 17

What is economic liberalism?

Answer 17

another term for capitalism
The liberal aspect of capitalism stems from 3 factors:
1. private property which they considered a natural right
2. Individualism
3. It’s of ultimate benefit to all- revealing eternal optimism and belief in progress

Question 18

Core ideas about liberalism: Why do liberals think a state is important

Answer 18

Without a state of law, the state of nature would lead to clashes of interest between individuals pursuing their own agendas and so a state would make resolutions more efficient

Question 19

What are the objectives of a liberal state?

Answer 19

Rejection of the ‘traditional’ state
Government by consent
Promotion of natural rights/individualism
Promotion of tolerance
Meritocracy
Equality of opportunity
Justice

Question 20

What is a rejection of a traditional state in wanting a liberal state?

Answer 20

Rejection of monarchial, absolutist and arbitrary rule, especially one that claims it has a ‘divine right’ to rule
Renounces a state where power is concentrated in the hands of one individual and where power is exercised randomly

Question 21

What is government by consent?

Answer 21

the state is only legitimate if those under it have effectively volunteered to be under it; governments must have consent of the governed, giving the people ultimate control over the state, rather than them being seen as subjects. This was later known as social contract theory

Question 22

What is Locke’s quote about government by consent?

Answer 22

‘government should always be the servant, not master, of the people’

Question 23

What does the promotion of natural rights/ individualism entail in a liberal state?

Answer 23

liberals assume that before a formal state, individuals enjoyed natural rights that enabled individualism. Therefore it would be irrational for individuals to abandon this by submitting to a state. The only rational way to submit to a state would be if it promoted natural rights, ensuring they are more safely exercised than in the state of nature

Question 24

What is the liberals belief of promotion of tolerance in the state

Answer 24

Concerned to ensure tolerance towards all individuals exercising their natural rights.
Mill insisted the state should be tolerant of all actions and opinions, unless they violated the harm principle.

Question 25

What is Voltaire’s famous call for freedom?

Answer 25

‘I detest what you say but will defend unto the death your right to say it’

Question 26

What is the harm principle

Answer 26

individuals should be free to do and say anything unless it could be proved that this harmed the rights and freedoms of others

Question 27

Why is tolerance necessary in an individualistic ideology?

Answer 27

liberals recognize that individuals don’t necessarily seek isolation but are drawn to societies to accommodate their individualism, for example in religious communities. It was therefore important for a state to show tolerance towards all religious groups

Question 28

Who has looked to extend tolerance to minorities?

Answer 28

Tolerance of minorities has since been extended and rethought by thinkers such as Betty Freidan who campaigns for the state to improve the lot of individuals hindered by sex, ethnicity etc.

Question 29

What is meritocracy?

Answer 29

political power should be exercised by only those who are worthy of it as they have won the trust of the governed
They believe against hereditary appointments

Question 30

What does the liberal state believe about equality of opportunity?

Answer 30

all people are born equal and have foundational equality, meaning they are deserving of the same right.
All individuals must therefore have equal opportunity to develop their potential and achieve control over their own lives. If they don’t fulfil their own potential, they are fully responsible and not the state in any way

Question 31

What does the liberal state believe about justice?

Answer 31

Thanks to foundational equality, the state should embody justice: there must be an assumption that it will treat people fairly, without regard to their identity. Therefore, individuals should assume a just outcome of any complaints

Question 32

What are the methods and structure should a liberal state uses to guarantee its objectives?

Answer 32

-constitutional/limited gov
-fragmented gov
-formal equality

Question 33

What is a constitutional/limited government structure?

Answer 33

Under gov by consent, liberals believe this should be cemented in a formal constitution. Before deciding what should be in the constitution, there should be extensive discussion and consensus over what a gov should do and how it does it
Therefore, it could be said to be a limited gov, to ensure it governs according to prearranged rules and doesn’t erode the natural rights of citizens

Question 34

What is a fragmented government as to be a feature of liberal governments?

Answer 34

designed to prevent all power being in the hands of one, like it was pre enlightenment
It also reflects their belief in rationality of mankind: if individuals are reasonable, it seems logical to empower as many individuals as possible

Question 35

What is Lord Acton’s famous quote about power being corruptive?

Answer 35

‘power tends to corrupt… and absolute power tends to corrupt absolutely’

Question 36

What is a formal equality as to be a feature of liberal governments?

Answer 36

thanks to foundational equality, all people should have the same legal and political rights
It places significance on the rule of law, meaning nobody should be outside or above the law