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UK Politics Summer Exam > Liberalism > Flashcards

Liberalism Flashcards

1
Q

Define Individualism

A
  • The belief of the primacy (i.e. the importance) of the individual in society over any group.
  • Individuals possess self-awareness, capabilities, personality and free will to decide their own destiny
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2
Q

Define Freedom and liberty

A
  • The ability of an individual to make decisions of their own accord and in their best interests.
  • Freedom however must be ‘under the law’ – i.e. it is not absolute.
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3
Q

Define the state

A
  • The state is seen as a ‘necessary evil’ under Liberalism.
  • It is needed to avoid disorder but must be limited as it can impact freedom and liberty.
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4
Q

Define Rationalism

A
  • Humans are rational creatures and are guided by reason and logic, not emotion and instinct.
  • This was central to Enlightenment thinking that rejected traditional authority and religion.
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5
Q

Define Equality and Social Justice

A
  • Humans share the same nature and are therefore are of equal value – this means that individuals should be treated impartially and fairly by society.
  • However, Liberals are divided on what equality means in practice.
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6
Q

Define Liberal Democracy

A

A democracy that balances the will of the people through free elections with a neutral, limited state and a recognition of civil liberties and toleration.

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7
Q

Formal Equality

A

Equality in the eyes of the law - legal equality

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8
Q

Foundational Equality

A

Foundational Equality – people are created with equal moral worth.

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9
Q

Equality of opportunity definition

A
  • Everyone should have the same chance to rise or fall in society.
  • Differing outcomes are acceptable as we have different abilities and potentials.
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10
Q

Define Liberal opinion on Social Inequality

A

Social inequality: Liberals believe some social inequality is acceptable as people with different talents require different rewards. Individuals need an incentive to strive, creating a meritocracy.

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11
Q

Limited Government

A
  • Government is empowered by law but is also restricted by law in a form of a constitution etc.
  • Means they are restricted in some way and power can be revoked if they are seen to breach
  • Limited Gov - (Constitution, Seperation of powers, Checks and balances, Bill of Rights)
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12
Q

The social contract

A
  • Agreement between governor and governed, the rights and duties of each.
  • People consent to being ruled but this means it is revokable if breeched.
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13
Q

Two forms of Individualism

A
  • Egoistical individualism - people are selfish and self reliant so NO SOCIETY.
  • Development individualism - SOCIETY NEEDED so everyone can grow and achieve personal goals
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14
Q

3 Arguments in favour of individualism:

A
  1. Human Nature: Egoistical individualism - All humans are unique and therefore should be left to their own devices to achieve their own goals (classical liberals)
  2. Society: Developmental individualism – society can provide foundations for everyone to achieve their individual goals.
  3. Tolerance is very important for liberals as each person needs to respect another individuality – their own views and values.
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15
Q

Quote from Thatcher

A

“There is no such thing as society, there are individual men and women and there are families”

Thatcher

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16
Q

Generalised Agreement within Liberalism:

Human Nature

A

Optimistic view of human nature

Primacy of the individual

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17
Q

Arguments in favour of freedom and liberty:

Classic liberals v modern liberals

A
  • Early liberal: Negative Freedom/Liberty intervention only when people’s actions undermine the ability of others to make decisions Freedom From
  • Modern Liberals: Positive Freedom/Liberty State intervention is required to facilitate individuals controlling their own destiny. Freedom to
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18
Q

Liberal attitudes to the state:

A
  • Necessary to prevent social disorder and exploitation of the vulnerable
  • As human nature is self-seeking, people in power may use it to benefit themselves
  • Therefore, there must be limited government
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19
Q

Liberal attitudes to rationalism:

A
  • Individuals benefit from taking responsibility for themselves and making decisions without any external agencies
  • Rationalism means individuals follow their best interests and make moral b, creating a progressive society
  • Discussion and debate should be used to solve conflicts.
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20
Q

Liberal view on the economy:

A
  • Laissez-faire capitalism (Classic Libs)
  • Economic competition benefits everyone
  • Therefore no intervention is needed.
  • This is driven by views on rationalism and limited state.
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21
Q

Quote from Adam Smith on Capitalism

A

“It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the baker that we expect our dinner but from their regard to their own interest”

Adam Smith

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22
Q

Argument for Liberal Democracy

A
  • A social contract exists where people give and renew their consent to be governed
  • A government is not legitimate without consent and must be accountable
  • Democracy promotes personal growth through participation and provides stability, giving voice to all
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23
Q

Argument against Liberal Democracy:

A
  • Some liberals, Robert Lowe, argue that the poorly educated should not vote – epistocracy
  • Gives government expanded powers and can stifle initiative
  • Tyranny of the majority’ – lack of minority protections
  • Therefore many liberals insist on constitutional protections for individuals and groups and limited government
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24
Q

Key points of John Locke

A
  1. Social Contract
  2. Limited Government - rejects divine right to rule.
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25
Q

Key points of Mary Wollstonecraft

A
  1. Reason
  2. Formal Equality
  3. Proto-feminst
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26
Q

Key Points of John Stuart Mill

A
  1. Harm Principle
  2. Tolerance
  3. Eudaimonia
  4. Utilitarianism
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27
Q

Key Points of John Rawls

A
  1. Theory of Justice - a society of free citizens holding equal basic rights and cooperating within an egalitarian economic system
  2. Veil of Ignorance - original position: a thought experiment to discover the principles that should structure a society of free, equal and moral people
  3. Difference Principle - permits diverging from strict equality so long as the inequalities in question would make the least advantaged in society materially better off than they would be under strict equality
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28
Q

Key Points of Betty Friedan

A
  1. Legal Equality
  2. Equal Opportunity
  3. Feminine Mystique - the societal assumption that women could find fulfillment through housework, marriage, sexual passivity, and child rearing alone
  4. Problem with No name - the widespread unhappiness of women in the 1950s and early 1960s
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29
Q

Classical Liberalism Definition

A

Early liberals who believed that individual freedom would best be achieved with the state playing a minimal role

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30
Q

Modern Liberalism Definition

A
  • Emerged as a reaction against free-market capitalism, believing this had led to many individuals not being free.
  • Freedom could no longer simply be defined as ‘being left alone’.
  • Needed to ensure more equality.
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31
Q

Epistocracy and Meritocracy

A
  • Epistocracy - only educated vote
  • Meritocracy - power based on your merit
32
Q

Definition of Mechanistic theory.

A
  • The idea that the state was not organic but created by individuals to serve them and act in their interests.
  • Classical and modern liberals disagree over what best interests are here.
33
Q

Definition of Keynesian Economics

A

A system of economic management where the state directly intervenes to stimulate the economy to achieve full employment and economic growth.

34
Q

3 Key Differences between classic and modern liberals: Freedom and Individualism

A
  1. C believe in negative freedom but M believe in positive Freedom
  2. C want egoistical individualism but M believe in developmental individualism.
  3. C think freedom is maximised by limiting power whereas M want to enable state to stop deprivation and increase opportunity
35
Q

Key differences between classic and modern:

the state

A
  • C - Minimal state, Nightwatchman
    • M- enabling state
  • C- focus on social order and protection
    • M- Responsibility to reduce socioeconomic disadvantages
  • C- Protect individual liberties as much as possible
    • M- Enlarged state enhances equality and therefore liberty
36
Q

2 Key differences between classic and modern:

The Economy

A
  1. C- Laissez-faire capitalism, trickle down economics, Invisible hand
    • M-Keynesian economics, Government directed capitalism (dirigisme)
  2. C-rationalism prevents selfishness
    • M- government should prevent economic depressions.
37
Q

Things Classic and Modern liberals agree on

A
  • Consent based government that guarantees civil liberties.
  • Private property
  • Individualism and an attempt to benefit everyone.
38
Q

trickle down economics definition

A

belief that if high-income earners gain an increase in salary, then everyone in the economy will benefit as their increased income and wealth filter through to all sections in society.

39
Q

Definition of Dirigisme

A

State run capitalism

40
Q

List of Classical liberals

A
  1. John Locke
  2. Mary Wollstonecraft
41
Q

Who is a transitional liberal?

A

J.S Mill

42
Q

Who are the modern liberals?

A
  1. Betty Friedan
  2. John Rawls
43
Q

Example of a neo-liberal and his beliefs

A
  • Robert Nozick
  • the outcome of two consenting adults voluntarily can never be unjust.
  • basically nearly no state
  • privatise public institutions
  • reduce welfare
  • no society just individuals.
44
Q

John Locke’s relevant book

A

Two treatise of Government (1690)

45
Q

Mary Wollstonecraft’s relevant book

A

Vindication of the Rights of Woman 1792

46
Q

J.S Mill’s relevant book

A

On Liberty 1859

47
Q

John Rawls relevant book

A

A Theory of Justice 1971

48
Q

Betty Friedan relevant book

A

The Feminine Mystique 1963

49
Q

John Locke views on State of Nature (4 things)

A
  1. Law of Nature - “no one is to harm another in his life health liberty or possessions.”
  2. Everyone has right to property {life liberty and estates}
  3. All human beings have capacity for morality
  4. We don’t necessarily need gov but it is convenient
50
Q

John Locke views on The State

6 things

A
  1. Religion and state separate
  2. Limited Gov
  3. Not necessary but convenient
  4. Social Contract
  5. Rejects divine right to rule
  6. State should serve INDIVIDUALS
51
Q

John Locke Views on Limited Government

A
  1. Popular sovereignty
  2. Social contract guarantees limited state
  3. ‘Right to resistance’ - Power to remove unjust government.
52
Q

John Locke views on the Economy

A
  1. Private property must be acquired “by labour, Used and not wasted, and must leave ‘enough and as good’ for others”
  2. To own something you must have put work into it.
53
Q

Mary Wollstonecraft views on Human nature

A
  1. Foundational equality
  2. Reason - Men and women are equally rational
  3. human nature is progressive
  4. VIRTUE
  5. God’s project is happiness.
54
Q

Mary Wollstonecraft views on the state (4 things)

A
  1. Proto-feminist - women need more education to raise their kids to be best citizens
  2. Supports the American and french rev.
  3. SHE WANTS A REPUBLIC (no monarchy)
  4. Women’s rights should be entrenched within the state.
55
Q

Mary Wollstonecraft’s views on society.

Which 3 opinions does she rejects?

A
  • Society is corrupt with no morals, we need equality
  • Equal marriage=Equal society
  1. Rejects Burke’s ‘intergenerational contact’ that we should just follow customs
  2. Rejects Rousseau’s‘savage state’ because we need education to achieve virtue
  3. Rejects Dr Gregory’s‘women needing a different education’ Both men and women are taught bad things Irrational to deny half the population work.
56
Q

Mary Wollstonecraft’s views on education

A
  1. Boys and girls, rich or poor should be educated together from 5-9.
  2. Attention to moral, physical and intellectual development.
  3. After that formal education is implemented depending on wealth and talent.
  4. Education in women should foster ‘a manly spirit of independence’
57
Q

Mary Wollstonecraft’s views on The Economy (4 things)

A
  1. Better education means more productive citizens
  2. Equal property rights for men and women
  3. Equal access of professions for the genders
  4. Economic independence for women will have good social impact. They will marry out of love not money, happier marriages, better lives for husbands and kids, less likelihood of infidelity
58
Q

JS Mill on Human Nature

A
  1. Actions are either ‘self-regarding’ or ‘other-regarding’
  2. Progression - Human nature can grow and develop thanks to our rationality. Eudaimonia is not the end state.
  3. Eudaimonia- state of flourishing that we should all aim for.
  4. Women’s rights advocate
59
Q

JS Mill on Society (6 things)

includes the quote about individualism/society in the modern world

A
  1. Tolerance, Each life is an ‘experiment in living’ we can learn from mistakes.
  2. Cautious of ‘tyranny of the majority’
  3. In the modern world we need individual liberties but a “membrane not a wall” between individuals because we need a good society to be happy.
  4. Utilitarianism as a moral view (Bentham.) Swine Doctrine critique.
  5. The harm principle but opinions aren’t harmful.
  6. Emphasis on the good life is where we are free to fulfil our own plan without interference
60
Q

JS Mill on the state and a bit of society

x6

LOTS OF INFO

A
  1. The state should not interfere with self-regarding actions.
  2. But they should curb other-regarding actions that harm anyone else. ‘my right to swing ends at the tip of your nose’
  3. Toleration of diverse views promotes Plurality.
  4. Interventions can not be justified by paternalistic eg to protect you, reasons of excellence eg to improve something, or reasons of dislike and eg stopping someone because its wrong unless its causing harm to others.
  5. Exceptions are made for children, ‘mentally disturbed’, backward society (justification for colonialism)
  6. Only the educated should vote – epistocracy We should have formal equality (equal rights) but the enlightened should design society.
61
Q

JS Mill on the economy

A
  • Therefore, the state should not intervene in the economy as long as it isn’t harming others. (laissez-faire capitalist)
  • As he gets older he becomes more ‘socialist’ and defends compulsory education, welfare for the poor, state supply of public goods eg water and regulating working conditions etc.
62
Q

The Harm Principle

A
  • Self regarding actions can’t be regulated
  • However, when an action (opinions don’t count) harms someone else and their freedom then the state must intervene.
  • By JS Mill
63
Q

John Rawls view on Society (3 things)

A
  1. Like Locke and Hobbes he is a contractarian, believes in a contract that supports ‘just’ institutions.
  2. The individual should never be broken, (inviolable) and we must always protect each others right to follow their life project.
  3. Social institutions (anything not private) should be designed with the aim of ensuring justice.
64
Q

John Rawls view on The State (4 things)

A
  1. Enabling state is needed to ensure justice
  2. The state should improve condition of the poor whilst keeping inequality of outcome
  3. Because we’re in a capitalist society where resources are low we need to find a way of fair distribution
  4. He defends meritocracy but says we need to all start equally (foundational equality) for it to work.
65
Q

John Rawls view on Human nature/state of nature (3 things)

A
  1. Original Position his version of state of nature. Where we put ourselves behind the veil of ignorance.
  2. In Veil of Ignorance we are not choosing equality because of selflessness. We are being purely selfish but also rational. It makes sense to choose equality if you could be anyone.
  3. The gap between top and bottom not necessarily reduced
66
Q

John Rawls view on Two principles of justice

A
  1. Each person has right to basic liberties. Vote, run for office etc.
  2. Social and economic inequalities are permissible only if:
    • They benefit the least advantaged people in society the most. (Difference principle)
    • They are attached to positions and offices open to all under conditions of fair equality of opportunity.
67
Q

Explain principle 2 of the two principles of justice by rawls

ie. the difference principle

A
  • the “difference principle,” requires that any unequal distribution of social or economic goods (e.g., wealth) must be such that the least-advantaged members of society would be better off under that distribution than they would be under any other distribution including an equal distribution.
  • (A slightly unequal distribution might benefit the least advantaged by encouraging greater overall productivity.)
68
Q

John Rawls quote about veil of ignorance

A

“A just society is a society that if you knew everything about it you would be willing to enter it in a random place”

69
Q

Betty Friedan’s views on the state (3 things)

A
  1. Criminalise discrimination
  2. Legal reform
  3. Equality of Opportunity
70
Q

Betty Friedan’s views on society

A
  1. More opportunities needed for women in society.
  2. Shift in social attitudes needed, stop thinking of women as domesticated carers so they can strive for careers.
  3. Fem mystique
  4. problem with no name
71
Q

Betty Friedan’s views on the “feminine mystique”

A
  • Name of her book (Feminine Mystique) referred to the false narrative that was promoted in press, schools’ churches etc that said
  • women were happy to be housewives and unhappy to work.
72
Q

Betty Friedan on “problem with no name”

A
  • ‘Problem with no name’ issue that laid buried or unspoken.
  • A yearning that women suffered with to work or have more meaning. A sense of dissatisfaction with housework life.
  • Friedan said that just because it couldn’t be understood like poverty or sickness women shouldn’t ignore the dissatisfied feeling with life.
  • Friedan argued that even those living in comfortable middle-class homes were not able to realise their potential and therefore were not truly free.
  • Wanted women to grow their individuality
73
Q

Who is okay with the idea of a monarchy?

A
  • Locke- fine if they don’t meddle with faith and they have the consent of the people (ie they enjoy the laws and don’t seem to be oppressed) Not absolute rule. Right to rebellion.
  • JS Mill - Fine with monarchy but definitely wanted some sort of representative government as well. DEFO NOT ABSOLUTE
74
Q

Differences between Liberals on Human Nature

Locke, Mill, Rawls

A
  1. Locke - We are all rational and moral beings but we are inherently selfish
  2. Mill - Human nature is progressive, meaning we grow as we try and reach our goal of Eudaimonia, a state of flourishing.
  3. Rawls - empathetic creatures
75
Q

Evelyn Beatrice Hall Quote

A

“I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it.”

UK Politics Summer Exam (8 decks)

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