Liberalism Flashcards
1
Q
Define Individualism
A
- The belief of the primacy (i.e. the importance) of the individual in society over any group.
- Individuals possess self-awareness, capabilities, personality and free will to decide their own destiny
2
Q
Define Freedom and liberty
A
- The ability of an individual to make decisions of their own accord and in their best interests.
- Freedom however must be ‘under the law’ – i.e. it is not absolute.
3
Q
Define the state
A
- The state is seen as a ‘necessary evil’ under Liberalism.
- It is needed to avoid disorder but must be limited as it can impact freedom and liberty.
4
Q
Define Rationalism
A
- Humans are rational creatures and are guided by reason and logic, not emotion and instinct.
- This was central to Enlightenment thinking that rejected traditional authority and religion.
5
Q
Define Equality and Social Justice
A
- Humans share the same nature and are therefore are of equal value – this means that individuals should be treated impartially and fairly by society.
- However, Liberals are divided on what equality means in practice.
6
Q
Define Liberal Democracy
A
A democracy that balances the will of the people through free elections with a neutral, limited state and a recognition of civil liberties and toleration.
7
Q
Formal Equality
A
Equality in the eyes of the law - legal equality
8
Q
Foundational Equality
A
Foundational Equality – people are created with equal moral worth.
9
Q
Equality of opportunity definition
A
- Everyone should have the same chance to rise or fall in society.
- Differing outcomes are acceptable as we have different abilities and potentials.
10
Q
Define Liberal opinion on Social Inequality
A
Social inequality: Liberals believe some social inequality is acceptable as people with different talents require different rewards. Individuals need an incentive to strive, creating a meritocracy.
11
Q
Limited Government
A
- Government is empowered by law but is also restricted by law in a form of a constitution etc.
- Means they are restricted in some way and power can be revoked if they are seen to breach
- Limited Gov - (Constitution, Seperation of powers, Checks and balances, Bill of Rights)
12
Q
The social contract
A
- Agreement between governor and governed, the rights and duties of each.
- People consent to being ruled but this means it is revokable if breeched.
13
Q
Two forms of Individualism
A
- Egoistical individualism - people are selfish and self reliant so NO SOCIETY.
- Development individualism - SOCIETY NEEDED so everyone can grow and achieve personal goals
14
Q
3 Arguments in favour of individualism:
A
- Human Nature: Egoistical individualism - All humans are unique and therefore should be left to their own devices to achieve their own goals (classical liberals)
- Society: Developmental individualism – society can provide foundations for everyone to achieve their individual goals.
- Tolerance is very important for liberals as each person needs to respect another individuality – their own views and values.
15
Q
Quote from Thatcher
A
“There is no such thing as society, there are individual men and women and there are families”
Thatcher
16
Q
Generalised Agreement within Liberalism:
Human Nature
A
Optimistic view of human nature
Primacy of the individual
17
Q
Arguments in favour of freedom and liberty:
Classic liberals v modern liberals
A
- Early liberal: Negative Freedom/Liberty intervention only when people’s actions undermine the ability of others to make decisions Freedom From
- Modern Liberals: Positive Freedom/Liberty State intervention is required to facilitate individuals controlling their own destiny. Freedom to
18
Q
Liberal attitudes to the state:
A
- Necessary to prevent social disorder and exploitation of the vulnerable
- As human nature is self-seeking, people in power may use it to benefit themselves
- Therefore, there must be limited government
19
Q
Liberal attitudes to rationalism:
A
- Individuals benefit from taking responsibility for themselves and making decisions without any external agencies
- Rationalism means individuals follow their best interests and make moral b, creating a progressive society
- Discussion and debate should be used to solve conflicts.
20
Q
Liberal view on the economy:
A
- Laissez-faire capitalism (Classic Libs)
- Economic competition benefits everyone
- Therefore no intervention is needed.
- This is driven by views on rationalism and limited state.
21
Q
Quote from Adam Smith on Capitalism
A
“It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer or the baker that we expect our dinner but from their regard to their own interest”
Adam Smith
22
Q
Argument for Liberal Democracy
A
- A social contract exists where people give and renew their consent to be governed
- A government is not legitimate without consent and must be accountable
- Democracy promotes personal growth through participation and provides stability, giving voice to all
23
Q
Argument against Liberal Democracy:
A
- Some liberals, Robert Lowe, argue that the poorly educated should not vote – epistocracy
- Gives government expanded powers and can stifle initiative
- Tyranny of the majority’ – lack of minority protections
- Therefore many liberals insist on constitutional protections for individuals and groups and limited government
24
Q
Key points of John Locke
A
- Social Contract
- Limited Government - rejects divine right to rule.
25
Key points of Mary Wollstonecraft
1. **Reason**
2. **Formal** **Equality**
3. Proto-**feminst**
26
Key Points of John Stuart Mill
1. **Harm** **Principle**
2. **Tolerance**
3. **Eudaimonia**
4. **Utilitarianism**
27
Key Points of John Rawls
1. **Theory of Justice -** a society of free citizens holding equal basic rights and cooperating within an egalitarian economic system
2. **Veil of Ignorance** - **original position**: a thought experiment to discover the principles that should structure a society of free, equal and moral people
3. **Difference Principle** - permits diverging from strict equality so long as the inequalities in question would make the least advantaged in society materially better off than they would be under strict equality
28
Key Points of Betty Friedan
1. Legal Equality
2. Equal Opportunity
3. Feminine Mystique - the societal assumption that women could find fulfillment through housework, marriage, sexual passivity, and child rearing alone
4. Problem with No name - the widespread unhappiness of women in the 1950s and early 1960s
29
Classical Liberalism Definition
Early liberals who believed that **individual freedom** would **best be achieved** with the state playing a **minimal role**
30
Modern Liberalism Definition
* Emerged as a reaction **against free-market capitalism**, believing this had led to many individuals **not being free**.
* Freedom could _no longer_ simply be defined as **‘being left alone’.**
* Needed to ensure _more equality._
31
Epistocracy and Meritocracy
* **Epistocracy** - _only educated vote_
* **Meritocracy** - _power_ based on your _merit_
32
Definition of Mechanistic theory.
* The idea that the **state was not organic** but **created** by **individuals** to serve them and **act in their interests.**
* Classical and modern liberals disagree over what best interests are here.
33
Definition of Keynesian Economics
A system of economic management where the **state directly intervenes to stimulate the economy** to achieve full employment and economic growth.
34
3 Key Differences between classic and modern liberals: **Freedom and Individualism**
1. C believe in **negative** freedom but M believe in **positive** Freedom
2. C want **egoistical** individualism but M believe in **developmental** individualism.
3. C think **freedom** is maximised by **limiting power** whereas M want to enable state to stop deprivation and **increase** **opportunity**
35
Key differences between classic and modern:
## Footnote
**the state**
* C - **Minimal** state, Nightwatchman
* M- **enabling** state
* C- focus on **social** order and protection
* M- Responsibility to **reduce** socioeconomic **disadvantages**
* C- Protect **individual liberties** as much as possible
* M- **Enlarged state** enhances equality and therefore liberty
36
2 Key differences between classic and modern:
The **Economy**
1. C- **Laissez-faire** capitalism, **trickle down** economics, Invisible hand
* M-**Keynesian** economics, Government directed capitalism (**dirigisme**)
2. C-**rationalism** **prevents** **selfishness**
* M- **government** should **prevent economic depressions**.
37
Things Classic and Modern liberals agree on
* **Consent** based **government** that guarantees **civil** **liberties**.
* **Private** **property**
* **Individualism** and an attempt to benefit everyone.
38
trickle down economics definition
belief that if high-income earners **gain an increase in salary**, then **everyone** in the economy will benefit as their increased income and wealth **filter through to all sections in society**.
39
Definition of Dirigisme
State run capitalism
40
List of Classical liberals
1. John Locke
2. Mary Wollstonecraft
41
Who is a transitional liberal?
J.S Mill
42
Who are the modern liberals?
1. Betty Friedan
2. John Rawls
43
Example of a neo-liberal and his beliefs
* **Robert Nozick**
* the outcome of _two consenting_ adults voluntarily can _never be unjust._
* basically **nearly no state**
* **privatise** public institutions
* **reduce welfare**
* **no society just individuals.**
44
John Locke's relevant book
*Two treatise of Government* (1690)
45
Mary Wollstonecraft's relevant book
*Vindication of the Rights of Woman* 1792
46
J.S Mill's relevant book
*On Liberty* 1859
47
John Rawls relevant book
A Theory of Justice 1971
48
Betty Friedan relevant book
The Feminine Mystique 1963
49
John Locke views on State of Nature (4 things)
1. **Law of Nature** - "*no one is to harm another in his life health liberty or possessions.”*
2. Everyone has **right to property** *{life liberty and estates}*
3. All human beings have **capacity for morality**
4. We don't necessarily need **gov** but it is **convenient**
50
John Locke views on The State
6 things
1. Religion and state separate
2. **Limited** Gov
3. Not necessary but **convenient**
4. **Social Contract**
5. Rejects divine right to rule
6. State should **serve INDIVIDUALS**
51
John Locke Views on Limited Government
1. **Popular sovereignty**
2. **Social** **contract** guarantees **limited** state
3. ***'Right to resistance'*** - Power to remove unjust government.
52
John Locke views on the Economy
1. Private property must be acquired *"by labour, Used and not wasted, and must leave 'enough and as good' for others"*
2. **To own something you must have put work into it.**
53
Mary Wollstonecraft views on Human nature
1. **Foundational** equality
2. **Reason** - Men and women are **equally** rational
3. human nature is progressive
4. **VIRTUE**
5. **God's** project is **happiness**.
54
Mary Wollstonecraft views on the state (4 things)
1. **Proto-feminist** - women need more **education** to raise their kids to be best citizens
2. Supports the American and french **rev**.
3. SHE WANTS A **REPUBLIC** (no monarchy)
4. **Women's** rights should be **entrenched** within the state.
55
Mary Wollstonecraft's views on society.
Which 3 opinions does she rejects?
* Society is **corrupt with no morals,** we need equality
* **Equal marriage=Equal society**
1. Rejects ***Burke's*** *'intergenerational contact'* that we should just **follow customs**
2. Rejects **Rousseau's**'*savage state'* because we need **education** to achieve **virtue**
3. Rejects **Dr Gregory's**'*women needing a different education'* Both men and women are taught bad things **Irrational to deny half the population work.**
56
Mary Wollstonecraft's views on education
1. Boys and girls, rich or poor should be **educated together** from 5-9.
2. Attention to **moral**, **physical** and **intellectual** development.
3. After that **formal** education is implemented depending on **wealth and talent.**
4. Education in **women** should foster ***‘a manly spirit of independence’***
57
Mary Wollstonecraft's views on The **Economy** (4 things)
1. Better education means **more productive citizens**
2. **Equal** **property** rights for men and women
3. Equal **access** of **professions** for the genders
4. **Economic** **independence** for **women** will have good social impact. They will **marry out of love** not money, **happier** **marriages**, better lives for husbands and kids, less likelihood of infidelity
58
JS Mill on Human Nature
1. Actions are either ‘**self-regarding’** or **‘other-regarding**’
2. Progression - Human nature can **grow** and **develop** thanks to our rationality. Eudaimonia is not the end state.
3. **Eudaimonia**- state of flourishing that we should all aim for.
4. Women's rights advocate
59
JS Mill on Society (6 things)
includes the quote about individualism/society in the modern world
1. **Tolerance**, Each life is an ***‘experiment in living’*** we can learn from mistakes.
2. Cautious of ***‘tyranny of the majority’***
3. In the modern world we need individual liberties but a ***“membrane not a wall”*** between individuals because we need a **good society to be happy**.
4. Utilitarianism as a **moral view (Bentham.**) _Swine Doctrine critique_.
5. The **harm principle** but opinions aren't harmful.
6. Emphasis on the good life is where we are _free to fulfil our own plan without interference_
60
JS Mill on the state and a bit of society
x6
LOTS OF INFO
1. The state should **not interfere** with **self-regarding actions.**
2. But they should **curb other-regarding actions** that **harm anyone else**. ‘*my right to swing ends at the tip of your nose’*
3. **Toleration** of **diverse** views promotes **Plurality**.
4. Interventions **can not be justified** by _paternalistic_ eg to protect you, reasons of _excellence_ eg to improve something, or _reasons_ of _dislike_ and eg stopping someone because its wrong **unless its causing harm to others.**
5. Exceptions are made for **_children_**, **_‘mentally disturbed’,_** **_backward society_** (justification for colonialism)
6. Only the _educated_ should _vote_ – **epistocracy** We should have **formal equality** (equal rights) but the **enlightened should design society.**
61
JS Mill on the economy
* Therefore, the state **should not intervene** in the economy as **long as it isn’t harming others**. (laissez-faire capitalist)
* As he gets older he becomes more ‘**socialist**’ and defends *compulsory education,* *welfare* for the poor, state supply of *public goods* eg water and regulating *working conditions* etc.
62
The Harm Principle
* Self regarding actions can't be regulated
* However, when an action (opinions don't count) harms someone else and their freedom then the state must intervene.
* By JS Mill
63
John Rawls view on Society (3 things)
1. Like Locke and Hobbes he is a **contractarian**, believes in a **contract** that **supports** ‘**just**’ **institutions**.
2. The **individual should never be broken**, (**inviolable**) and we must always *_protect each others right to follow their life project._*
3. **Social institutions** (anything not private) should be **designed** with the aim of **ensuring justice.**
64
John Rawls view on The State (4 things)
1. **Enabling** state is needed to ensure justice
2. The state should **improve** **condition** of the **poor** whilst keeping **inequality** of **outcome**
3. Because we’re in a **capitalist** society where **resources** are low we need to find a way of fair distribution
4. He **defends** **meritocracy** but says we need to all start equally **(foundational equality)** for it to work.
65
John Rawls view on **Human nature**/state of nature (3 things)
1. **Original Position** his version of state of nature. Where we put ourselves behind the **veil of ignorance**.
2. In Veil of Ignorance we are not choosing equality because of selflessness**.** We are being **purely selfish** but also **rational**. It makes sense to choose equality if _you could be anyone._
3. The **gap** between top and bottom **not necessarily reduced**
66
John Rawls view on Two principles of justice
1. Each person has **right to basic liberties**. Vote, run for office etc.
2. Social and economic **inequalities** are **permissible** only if:
* They _benefit the least advantaged people in society the most._ ***(Difference principle)***
* They are **attached to positions and offices open to all** under conditions of fair _equality of opportunity._
67
Explain principle 2 of the two principles of justice by rawls
ie. the difference principle
* the **“difference principle,”** requires that any unequal distribution of social or economic goods (e.g., wealth) must be such that the **least-advantaged members of society would be better off under that distribution than they would be under any other distribution including an equal distribution.**
* (A slightly unequal distribution might benefit the least advantaged by **encouraging greater overall productivity.)**
68
John Rawls quote about veil of ignorance
*“A just society is a society that if you knew everything about it you would be willing to enter it in a random place”*
69
Betty Friedan's views on the state (3 things)
1. Criminalise discrimination
2. Legal reform
3. Equality of Opportunity
70
Betty Friedan's views on society
1. More **opportunities** needed for **women** in society.
2. **Shift in social attitudes** needed, _stop thinking of women as domesticated carers so they can strive for careers._
3. ***Fem mystique***
4. ***problem with no name***
71
Betty Friedan's views on the "feminine mystique"
* Name of her book (Feminine Mystique) referred to the **false narrative** that was promoted in *press*, *schools*’ *churches* etc that said
* women **were happy to be housewives and unhappy to work.**
72
Betty Friedan on "problem with no name"
* *‘Problem with no name*’ issue that laid buried or unspoken.
* A **yearning** that women suffered with to **work** or have **more meaning**. A sense of **dissatisfaction** with housework life.
* Friedan said that just because it couldn’t be understood like poverty or sickness **women** **shouldn’t** **ignore the dissatisfied feeling with life.**
* Friedan argued that even those living in comfortable middle-class homes were not able to realise their potential and therefore were not truly free.
* Wanted women to _grow their individuality_
73
Who is okay with the idea of a monarchy?
* **Locke**- _fine if they **don't meddle** with faith and they have the consent of the people_ (ie they enjoy the laws and don't seem to be oppressed) **Not absolute rule.** **Right to rebellion**.
* **JS Mill** - Fine with monarchy but **definitely wanted some sort of representative government as well**. DEFO NOT ABSOLUTE
74
Differences between Liberals on Human Nature
Locke, Mill, Rawls
1. **Locke** - We are all **rational** and **moral** beings but we are inherently **selfish**
2. **Mill** - Human nature is **progressive**, meaning we grow as we try and reach our goal of Eudaimonia, a state of flourishing.
3. **Rawls** - **empathetic** creatures
75
Evelyn Beatrice Hall Quote
*"I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it."*
