Liberalism Flashcards
Who are the 5 liberalist key thinkers?
John Locke
Mary Wollstonecraft
J.S Mill
John Rawls
Betty Friedan
What was Locke’s most important work?
Two Treatises of Government (1960)
What are Locke’s two key liberal ideas he developed?
Social contract theory
Limited government
What is the social contract theory?
Society, state and government are based on a voluntary agreement or contract.
Citizens obey the state’s laws on the understanding that the state will guarantee them certain rights.
If these rights are not upheld by the state, the governed are no longer obliged to obey the state’s laws.
What is a limited government?
Government should be limited by a constitution’s rules and procedures, and be based on consent from below.
The concept of limited government rejected the arbitrary rule of medieval monarchs and the idea of ‘divine right’ to rule.
What can Locke be used for?
State
Locke: The state and social contract theory
Rejected the idea the ordinary people were ‘subjects’ of the state who were expected to submit to the monarch’s wishes.
The ‘true’ state would be established by humans to serve their interests and it would be based on voluntary consent.
The social contract is based on the reason that rational people would not willingly submit to arbitrary rule because it was not in their interests to do so.
Locke: The state and limited government
Due to the contractual nature of the state, the government is limited to representing the interests of the people and gaining their ongoing consent.
Limited nature of the state would be achieved by dispersing its powers between the executive, legislative and judiciary- this ensures the state isnt overbearing.
What was Locke’s politicial position?
He was not a democrat in the full sense as he accepted that the right to property led to inequality but he did believe in the people’s right to remove an unjust government- this is often cited as an influence of the US Declaration of Rights.
What were Wollstonecraft’s key ideas?
Reason
Formal equality
What is reason?
What is reason?
What is formal equality?
In order to be free, women should enjoy full civil liberties and be allowed to have a career.
What is Wollstonecraft’s best-known book?
A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792)
What can Wollstonecraft be used for?
Human nature
The state
Society
Wollstonecraft and human nature.
Human nature should be viewed in optimistic terms and, since both men and women are able to act in an rational way, women should be entitled to the same rights as men.
Wollstonecraft and the state.
18th century state measures and social attitudes assumed women were not ratiomal and so they could not enjoy individual freedom.
Few women owned property or had rewarding jobs, and, within marriage, they were not legally independent.
Women were not permitted to vote, which contradicted the concept of ‘government by consent’.
Wollstonecraft and society.
To be equal and free, women should enjoy full civil liberties and be able to pursue a career, rather than be economically dependent on men.
Formal education was vital in this process since it would give women (and men) self-respect and help them to realise their potential.
Marriage had to be a truly equal partnership so that women could choose freely between having a family or a career.
What are J.S Mill’s key ideas?
Harm Principle
Tolerance
What is the Harm Principle?
Individuals should be free to do anything except harm other people.
This was lined out in his book, On Liberty (1859)
What is tolerance?
Being prepared to accept values, customs and beliefs with which one usually diagrees with.
What can Mill’s ideas be used for?
Human nature
Society
The state
What is the harm pricniple closely linked to?
The classical concepts of negative freedom, limited government and tolerance.
Mill and human nature.
Human actions are either ‘self-regarding’ (affecting only the person undertaking the action) or ‘other-regarding’ (affecting other people).
Self-regarding actions can include religious observance whereas other-regarding actions can include violence.
Mill and society.
Mill endorsed tolerance and the right to hold a minority view- a widely-held opinion did not always make it correct.
Mill and the state.
The state or other individuals should not interfere with self-regarding actions because they do not harm other people.
The state and other individuals should curb other-regarding actions if they harm the freedom of others.
Self-regarding actions and ‘unharmgful’ other-regarding actions should be tolerated by the state.
Tolerance of diverse views would promote new ideas and expose flawed ones.
What are John Rawls’ key ideas?
Theory of justice
The veil of ignorance
Was Rawls a modern liberal?
Yes
What was Rawls’ key work?
A Theory of Justice (1971)
What is the theory of justice?
Society must be just and guarantee each citizen a life worth living.
What is the veil of ignorance?
Individuals agree on the type of society they want from a position where they lack knowledge of their own position in society.
What can Rawls be used to discuss?
State
Society
Rawls: the state.
An enabling state is required to redistribute wealth, increase public spending and adopt progressive taxation to create equality.
The state should improve the condition of the poor but inequalities of outcome would remain to reflect individual differences. This is tolerable as long as deprivation does not worseh.
Rawls: society/state.
Humans, being rational and empathetic, would devise a new society where the poor received better treatment.
People would choose a fairer more equal society (partly because the ‘veil would prevent them knowing their position in society).
The enabling state required would be based on government by consent.
Rawls: human nature/society.
Most people would still expect scope for individual freedom. So, although the state would improve the condition of the the poor, the gap between the top and bottom of society would not automatically be reduced.
What is Betty Friedan’s major work?
The Feminine Mistique (1963).
What are Friedan’s key ideas?
Legal equality
Equal opportunity
What is legal equality?
Women and men are of equal worth and equally capable and opressive laws and social views must be rejected.
What is equal opportunity?
Women are restricted in their choices and opportunities by social conditioning through the family and agencies such as the education system and the mass media.
What can Friedan be used for?
The state
Society
Society and Freidan.
Conditioning emphasises unfulfilling domestic roles rather than careers.
More extensive opportunities and a shift in social attitudes is needed
The state and Friedan.
Legal measures will secure greater equality of opportunity for females and enable women to compete with men on equal terms.
Legislation and official regulations should criminalise discrimination. This will prevent women from having their freedoms ‘harmed’ by others.
Legal change is the only realistic way to make progress;
confrontation is counter-productive.
Legal equality represents a modern form of the longstanding liberal belief in tolerance, as advocated by social liberalism.
Which key thinkers are used for the state?
Locke
Wollstonecraft
Mill
Rawls
Friedan
Which key thinkers are used for economy?
Locke
Wollstonecraft
Mill
Rawls
Which key thinkers are used for society?
Wollstonecraft
Mill
Rawls
Friedan
Which key thinkers are used for human nature?
Wollstonecraft
Mill
Possibly Rawls.
Name the main classical liberal key thinker?
Locke
Which key thinker signalled the transition from classical to modern liberalism
J.S Mill
where did liberalism originate from
the reformation- a religious movement, decreased influence of the church
the enlightenment- religion was no longer the only thing underpinning society
what theory did John Locke champion
what did this oppose?
mechanistic theory- human beings are intelligent and are able to create a political system for themselves and by themselves which was based on reason
the monarchy- monarchs were previously unassailable due to the divine right of kings
what is the divine right of kings
the idea that god has given them power as he has chosen them to be monarchs
list 4 liberal fundamental concepts
1) humans are rational beings able to make decisions for themselves
2) people should have the freedom to make their own decisions absent from government control
3) freedoms such as property and of speech
4) government has a limited role- only where necessary, eg nationa defence
what are 3 of the features of a liberal
democracy
1) a constitution which guarantees freedoms (like US)
2) All individuals have equal political rights through the voting system- gives government authority
3) separation of powers to prevent concentration
define egotistical individualism
the belief that humans are driven by self interests and the pursuit of happiness without conflict
explain liberal views on human nature
• optimistic
• naturally self serving and self seeking
• egotistical individualism
• dont believe life is planned out by god, the individual can work towards their goal and plan their own life
• rational beings that can act in their own self interest seeking pleasure and avoiding pain
explain liberal views on society
locke- natural society with natural rights and laws, whom main purpose is to facilitate individualism allowing people to flourish and seek freedom
- property is key- allows individuals to develop their potential, providing opportunities for civilised communities
explain liberal views on the state
• needed to prevent clashes between individuals pursuing their own egocentric agendas (like a referee)
• rejects traditional state of monarchy, absolutist and arbitrary rule
• power must be dispersed to prevent too much concentrated power
• ‘government by consent’ Jean Jaques Rousseau- also known as the social contract- govt is only effective when it has proper mandate
• John stuart mill- the state should tolerate everything unless it violates the harm principle
• aristocracy has place in the state
what is the harm principle
the idea that so long as no one is getting hurt u can do what u like
what do liberals disagree with in the makeup of the parliament
hereditary peers in the house of lords as they are unelected aristocracy
describe equality of opportunity
all individuals are born equal and have equal rights and are of equal values so must have equal opportunities to develop their potential, if an individual fails it is their own responsibility and not the state
summarise the liberal state in three points
1) limited govt
2) separation of powers
3) formal equality
explain liberal views of the economy
• support for capitalism comes from liberals love of private property which sits at the heart of capitalism
• Adam smith promoted free market economics which he beliveved would increase prosperity and reduce poverty
• Adam smith also said capitalism would allow wealth to trickle down to everyone- some view this as naive
early classical liberals:
revolutionary potential
locke argued the state should be driven by representatives of the people rather than masters
idea associated with the English civil war
early classical liberals:
negative liberty
negative liberty- freedom as an absence from restraint
individuals are naturally free unless something puts a break on this
early classical liberals:
minimal state
govt should be limited in how much power it has to exercise
Thomas Jefferson “the government which governs best is the government wh …. govern the least
what did Thomas Jefferson say about state and liberty
“the government which governs best is the government which governs least… When government grows our liberty withers”
early classical liberals:
laissez faire capitalism
represents liberal approach to the markets economy as expressed by Adam smith- end tariffs and duties
what are the four things that early classical liberals favour
minimal state
negative liberty
revolutionary potential
laissez faire capitalism
where did later classical liberals emerge from
built on early liberalism but responded to the industrial revolution amongst other events
explain the later classical liberal concept of tyranny of the majority
what’s an issue with this
Jeremy Bentham said people seek to maximise pleasure and minimise pain, consequently the state needed to make decisions for the greatest good for the greatest number of people (issue= some people are unaccounted for)
what did Samuel smiles say about the state
if self help was overturned by state help, their liberty would be damaged
what did the slightly radical Herbert Spencer say which conflicted
Samuel smiles
he said ALL individuals can rise to the challenge of self help, and the feeble feckless and failing jeopardise this for other capable people, he tried to apply principles of natural selection to these feeble people
how did mill update lockes idea of representative democracy
updated it to representative democracy- they would not just make decisions on what’s best for majority, but try to aggregate various opinions and do what’s best for the country
what was mills argument fro universal education
criticise this
to provide everyone with equal opportunities
universal education however would require enormous state intervention which goes against classical liberalism
what did new liberals think about social justice
argued social justice as well as legal justice was necessary to allow individuals to achieve their potential, this created a new idea:
positive freedom- helping others to help themselves
explain what John Rawls meant by the enlarged and enabled state
work to ensure that less fortunate individuals have the chance to flourish
can be done through public spending
why do new liberals want constitutional reform
change to codified constitution- to guarantee freedoms
Hol reform- stop aristocracy in power
what do social liberals want
greater racial and sexual tolerance, can be done through affirmative action programs and sex discrimination act (which
Betty Frieda’s said ensures women liberty)
what did Neo liberals want
to revert to classical liberal ways, reduce public spending, limit govt and negative freedom to replace the dependency culture with enterprising individualism
what does liberalism look like today around the world
• greater rights for minorities
• greater focus on the individual (west)
• element of constitutional reform (coalition govt)
however terrorism has meant in immense restrictions in rights in terms of extra surveillance and monitoring people more, also politicians such as trump and Brexit has limited peoples freedom of travel, issues of immigration etc
explain key thinker John Locke’s views on core ideas
human nature:
-rational beings guided by self interest
the state:
-govt must be representative, servants not masters
the society:
-natural society with natural rights and laws
the economy:
-state should protect right to private property
explain key thinker Mary Wollstonecraft views on core ideas
human nature:
-intellectually men and women are not different so should not be
treated as so
the state:
-the monarchy state should be replaced with a representative one to guarantee women rights further
the society:
-represses women giving them limited choices
the economy:
-would benefit women if it allowed them an active role
explain key thinker John Stuart Mills views on core ideas
human nature:
-not fixed, can improve and progress by being fully educated
the state:
-should be representative and democratic but protect minority groups (tyranny of majority)
the society:
-should allow everyone to be fully individual
the economy:
-aissez faire capitalism essential to progress society
explain key thinker John Rawls views on core ideas
human nature:
-mankind is selfish but empathetic
the state:
spending
-must be enlarged and enabling to help lower classes- public
the society:
-must work to improve the lives of the poor and uneducated
the economy:
-state must interfere if free market capitalism is repressing groups
explain key thinker Betty friedans views on core ideas
human nature:
-forward moving and progressive
the state:
-should step in when women being repressed (through legislation eg sex discrimination act)
the society:
-society needs reeducating about gender roles
the economy:
-free market capitalism can only help women as long as there is legislation to prevent discrimination.
How can the ideas of classical liberals be
summarised?
• Government by consent
• Guarantee of individual freedom
• Representative democracy
• A limited role for the state within society and the economy
• Individuals are born with natural rights
What are the political ideas of classical liberalism commonly associated with?
The age of Enlightenment in the eighteenth century.
What did modern liberalism argue for?
An increased role of the state both in society and the economy.
Some felt it enhanced individual freedom and was a logical continuation of the ideas of classical liberalism.
What are the core ideas of Liberalism?
• Individualism
• Freedom / Liberty
• The state (a necessary evil)
• Rationalism
• Equality and Social ustice
• Liberal Democracy
What do Liberals believe about individualism?
The preservation of individual rights and freedom are above any claims by the state within society.
What is foundational equality?
All individuals are born with natural rights which entitle them to:
* Liberty
* Pursuit of happiness
* Avoidance of pain
Translates to the rule of law where all people are treated equally under the law.
What does modern liberalism argue in counter to classical liberalism in regards to the equality of society?
Classical liberalism underplays the level of inequality in society.
Society is not equal and some individuals have a distinct advantage over other.
Negative freedoms practiced by classical liberalism only exacerbates the inequalities rather than addressing them.
What do modern liberals think determine one’s societal position?
• Race
• Gender
• Social Class
• Innate Intelligence etc.
These determinants are of great importance as to whether an individual thrived or underachieved in society.
What is egotistical individualism?
Individual freedom is associated with a rational sense of self-reliance and self-interest.
What is developmental individualism?
Individuals must help themselves in order to improve.
Classical liberals feel the state should interfere as little as possible in this process.
Modern liberals feel the state can assist in an individuals development via intervention. (free education)
What is the classical liberal attitude towards individualism?
• The primary motivation of an individual is egotistical individualism.
• Freedom of the individual is sacrosanct.
• The state should be small (maintaining law and order, protecting from invasion) [Sometimes called negative freedom]
