Leisure Sports And Tourism Flashcards
Leisure
Any freely chosen activity or experience that takes place in non-work time
What three categories can leisure be put into
Recreation - leisure time activity undertaken voluntarily and for enjoyment
Sports - physical activities
Tourism - travelling away from home for at least one night for the purpose of leisure
What are the different types of scatter graphs and what actually is a scatter graph?
Scatter graph - type of graph that show the relationship between two variables
Types:
Positive correlation
Negative correlation
No correlation
LIC leisure patterns (Sudan)
Sudan
Development data
$2,800 GDP per capita
56.1% female literacy rate
36.3% of total population is urban as of 2023
28.8% of the population are internet users
Leisure patterns
Work x play - play fighting while herding sheep
Scraps are used by children to make houses and dolls
Involvement of Sudan in sporting events
Only ever won one Olympic medal which was a silver
4 people represented Sudan in the summer Paris olympics 2024
Not many sporting facilities
Popular sports such as football because doesn’t require a lot of equipment
International tourism in Sudan
836,000 international tourists came to Sudan in 2018
Sudan is the largest but one of the least visited countries in Africa
MIC leisure patterns
China
Development data
$22,100 per capita
95.2% of women know how to read and write
64.6% of total population in urban areas
73% of population uses the internet
Leisure patterns
Huge growth in leisure industry because of:
- Rapid urbanisation
- Greater online connectivity
- Ageing population
Leisure and recreation services expected to grow 132% from 2014-2030 spending 2-4 hours a day of which 2/3 are spent watching TV
Chinese people spent $196.5 billion on travelling abroad in 2023
In 2019 there were 155 million tourists from China, 3 times as many than in 2010
International events
China has larger success in Paris olympics 2024. Finishing 2nd with 91 medals with 40 being gold
Competed in the World Cup in 2008
Won the 2008 olympics
HIC leisure patterns
USA
Development data
GDP per capita = $76,300
Female literacy rate - 82.7%
Urban population - 80%
Population internet users - 91.8%
Leisure patterns
65-74 have the most leisure time with 7 hours
25-54 with the least amount of leisure time 4.2 hours
Teenagers have around 5.7 hours
US is where most money is spent by foreign travellers amounting to $17 billion and the US is expected to spend $198 billion on international travel by 2025. With 82.7% and 76.3% of travellers, respectively, sightseeing and shopping were the most popular activity of release travellers abroad
US travel and tourism industry has generated about $2.02 trillion in 2022
In sports events this they had 637 in the 2024 Olympic Games
What are the 5 types of leisure tourism?
Beach tourism
Cruise tourism
Heritage and cultural tourism
Adventure tourism
Wildlife/environmental tourism
Changing fashion in tourism
Mass tourism involving large numbers and having a significant impact upon destination has lost favour with many more affluent tourists.
Niche tourism has developed out of a desire for diversity and something new more likely to be sustainable as it is small scale and often involves the host cultures
Tourism hotspot
Areas of intense leisure activity that attract above average numbers of visitors
What should a successful hotspot have?
Have the attractions to attract tourism
Able to cater successfully for the number of tourists visiting the area through infrastructure developments (accommodation and transport).
Urban area
A built up area like a city or town
Rural area
Countryside or a geographical area of that is located outside towns or cities
Heritage tourism
Experience the place, artifacts, historic sites and indigenous places of an area
Cultural tourism
Visitors aim is to learn and discover local attractions and consume local products
Carrying capacity
Maximum number of visitors/participants that a site/event can satisfy at one time
Environmental carrying capacity
Maximum number before local environment becomes damaged
Perceptual carrying capacity
Maximum number before a specific group of visitors considers the level of impact, such as noise to be excessive
Sustainable tourism
Has a low impact on the environment and local culture while generating future employment for young people.
What is ecotourism?
Attempting to have a low impact on the environment and local culture while helping to generate future employment for local people
What is sustainable tourism?
Is a green or alternative form of tourism that aims to manage the environment sustainably
What are the 6 principles of sustainable tourism?
Planning control of tourism developments
Evaluation of available resources and environmental assessment before the development takes place
Integration of tourism into regional planning
Continued involvement and control by local people to invest and run tourism business
Identification of the type of tourism appropriate to the resources and environment
Establishment and maintenance of carrying capacity that balances conservation and development
Diaspora
Dispersion or spread of people from their original homeland
How does social media influence the growth of tourism?
research trips
makes decision
share their experiences
Trip Advisor
Founded in 2000; by 2015 it listed 890,000 hotels in 45 countries
Aggregates information and reviews on attractions and businesses
Every transaction is covered by a trusted
Payment Protection
Many travellers leave negative comments, which other travellers believe and end up not going
Facebook: Over half of Facebook users say that there holiday trips are influenced by friends holiday photos
Tour operators, hotels, cruises, destinations,
and airlines have ads on
Facebook
Specific examples
Positive thailand
Thailand started receiving a lot of
tourists as smaller locations were
promoted, such as Chiang Dao.
This has created increased job
opportunity and employment rates.
There is improved infrastructure to
cater to the tourists.
Negative mount everest
Everest became a more visited
tourism destination as people wanted
to take a picture at the summit.
This means that there are large wait
lines to climb to the top, making it a
less enjoyable experience. There is
also increased littering and stress on
Sherpa climbers
How does international security influence growth of tourism?
What is international security
The impact of threats such as terrorism and pandemics on the travel and tourism industry.
Pandemic e.g. Covid-19
In April 2020 - 31 million people flew
In April 2021 - Only 200,000 people flew out of Heathrow Airport which is fewer that would go in a single day were now going in a month
Due to COVID-19 it was estimated that flights would not return to normal levels until 2023, according to IAITA
Air Canada lost over 1 billion dollars in the first quarter of the year in 2020
It was said without government aid only 30 out of 700 airlines would survive through the pandemic
Prices to fly increased a lot
By June 2020, 189 countries imposed some form of travel restrictions from quarantine to border closures
Terrorism
Terrorism in the travel and tourism industry -> long-term economic decline + social and economic impacts. Terrorist threats in the industry -> major concern for many governments and TNC’s.
Terrorists target tourists to achieve their goals
Success of travel and tourism does not protect it from the impact of terrorism. E.g. 11 September 2001 (9/11) -> terrorist attacks on Twin Towers due to aircraft hijacking; impact on worldwide travel. Initial drops in arrivals reflect concern about safety of travel.
At the national level, governments can implement tighter security. Experts believe certain parts of the Middle East and Sub-Saharan Africa are turning out to be main power centres for terrorism so governments attempt to limit potential tourism there.
How does diaspora affect the growth of tourism?
Overall advantages
Diaspora tourists are more likely to spend money at local restaurants and businesses so it can have positive development potential
Unlike other tourism, it is not seasonal and is a relatively reliable type of tourism
less likely to be affected by things like recessions
Contributes to development or expansion of tourist facilities in a country.
Diaspora tourists often combine visits to family and friends with visits to tourist attractions and leisure activities.
Overall disadvantages
They don’t spend as much money compared to international tourists
Staying with relatives will mean that less money will be used for hotels, contributing less to the economy.
The government finds it hard to track the diaspora tourist as they don’t follow the same activities as international tourists, so their tourist data is not accurate.
Specific examples
Philippines (Boracay, Cebu, Manila)
The Philippine diaspora is one of the largest in the world- with more than 10 million overseas Filipinos, with 3.4 million of them in the United States of America.
In 2022, tourism had the highest economic growth, contributing 8.6% to the GDP
As of September 2023, the Philippines generated $5.5 billion in tourism
The highest concentration of tourists in the Philippines are in Boracay, Cebu and Manila.
Africa (Ghana):
Many ancestors of african slaves who are living in USA travel to Ghana to find out about their heritage
Many of them found it great to reconnect with their cultures and ancestry
In 2019 many ancestors of the slave trade were encouraged to visit Ghana as it marked 400 years since africans were enslaved and shipped to the US
126 people were granted citizenship in 2019 and many of them were diaspora africans
The African Diaspora Heritage Trail conference encourages more investment publicly and privately into diaspora tourism along with eco-tourism
What is doping and what are the consequences and health risks?
Definition: Doping refers to the use of prohibited substances or methods to enhance athletic performance. This includes anabolic steroids, stimulants, and hormones.
Consequences: Athletes caught doping face sanctions, including suspensions, disqualifications, and damage to their reputations. High-profile cases, like those involving Lance Armstrong or the Russian doping scandal, highlight the issue’s seriousness.
Health Risks: Beyond ethical concerns, doping can pose significant health risks, including cardiovascular issues, hormonal imbalances, and psychological effects.
What is match fixing and what are the methods and what are the impacts?
Definition: Match-fixing involves manipulating the outcome of a sporting event, often for financial gain through illegal betting.
Methods: Fixing can occur at various levels, from amateur to professional sports. Involvement can include players, referees, and even coaches, who may be coerced or incentivized to alter game outcomes.
Impact: Match-fixing damages the integrity of sports, erodes fan trust, and can lead to financial loss for organisations. Major scandals, such as those in cricket and soccer, have prompted widespread reforms.
Qatar world cup 2022: What are the benefits for the host nation?
The World Cup brings people together from all over the world and helps to celebrate the culture of the host nation. Qatari people were proud to share their culture with visitors during the World Cup.
The World Cup has raised the profile of Qatar as a tourism destination, helping to bring in visitors which has boosted the economy. The country also now has the facilities to host future world class sporting events.
Qatar was praised on the technological design of the stadiums, these have changed the environment and make the landscape more vibrant.
Qatar’s government has been widely criticised for human rights violations, perhaps international attention on such matters will help to improve Qatar’s human rights record in the future.
Qatar world cup 2022: What are the problems for the host nation?
Not everyone living in Qatari society was treated equally. Migrant workers were reported to have died in large numbers working in harsh conditions with very poor pay. It is reported that there were 6,500 migrant deaths.
It was the most expensive World Cup of all time - $220 billion spent. Could this money have been better spent to improve the lives of the Qatari people in other ways.
Although the Qatar government claimed that it was an environmentally sustainable event, organisations like the BBC questioned this and some environmentalists believe it was an extremely high carbon event. This did not help Qatar’s reputation or the environmental legacy of the games.
Qatar received a huge amount of criticism with regards to human rights. This damaged Qatar’s reputation.
Paris Olympics 2024: What are the problems for the host nation?
Estimated 25,000 homeless people were forced out of Paris to bring a more ‘attractive’ appearance over the year leading up to the Olympics
20,000 homes were needed in France for the homeless community
1,000 urgent homes were said to be built but the government decreased the number to 80
While the Olympic Committee is fine with head covers, France didn’t allow their athletes to wear them, creating social tensions and discomfort to those who wear head coverings for religious or personal reasons
Spent at least 9.7 billion dollars and 3.25 billion of it came from French taxpayers.
Clothing stores sales in Paris fell by 13% during the first week of the Olympics.
A new highway interchange and offramp were constructed in the neighbourhood of Pleyel, not far from the Stade de France. The new highway interchange runs alongside a local school, where increased road traffic exposes children to dangerous and illegal levels of pollution.
Despite lower carbon emissions than previous summer Olympics, the 2024 olympics were still expected to emit at least 1.58 million tons of CO2.
Israel being allowed to compete in the Olympics caused controversy due to the ongoing Israel-Hamas wars.
26 French lawmakers had called for Israel to be sanctioned and banned from the Olympics.
AI-powered cameras introduced at the Olympics could pose a threat to the privacy of French citizens.
Paris Olympics 2024: What are the benefits for the host nation?
Hosting the Olympics in your country draws attention to sport amongst the local population and can encourage healthy lifestyles, sport and physical activity. One initiative introduced ahead of the Paris Games was called 1,2,3 Swim. This programme provided free swimming lessons to over 36,000 children across France.
Preparations for hosting the Olympics spurred infrastructure development and led to permanent improvements in transit, parks, and recreation facilities.
Skills and training programmes introduced ahead of the games led to 30,000 people being trained in new skills for future careers, enhancing their employability and career prospects.
Those with tickets for the games were provided with free public transport cards which meant less people would drive around causing traffic jams.
It was a lot ‘greener’ than past Olympics. For example, they drastically cut back on building new stadiums and venues, and relied heavily on wood as a building material for new infrastructure and used low-carbon concrete.
The games boosted Paris’s reputation as a global city.
What is the Burning Man festival?
The Burning Man festival is a festival involving arts, music and culture. It takes place once a year at the end of August and lasts for about a week. An average of 80,000 ‘burners’ attend the festival each year.
Where is the burning man festival located?
The Burning Man festival takes place in the western United States in the Black Rock desert of NW Nevada. It is located 100 miles (160km) north-east of Reno. It is in an isolated area. The nearest town of Gerlach is 10 miles away but only has a population of about 200.
Describe the characteristics of the burning man festival site location:
The festival takes place on an 18 square mile site on the playa in Nevada’s Black Rock Desert.
The playa is an alkaline dust flat that was formed as the bed of the former Lake Lahontan 12,000 years ago. Stretching across about 129 square miles, the sandy stretch of Black Rock Desert is as flat as a tabletop. Often flooded in winter, it becomes dusty and dry in the summer.
What is environmental management like at Burning Man?
One of the key aims of the festival is to “leave no trace”, this is particularly because the festival takes place in a wilderness area (Black Rock Desert) and so to maintain the environment the festival organisers employ a restoration team.
Starting the last day of the event and lasting roughly one month, the Playa Restoration Team works to return the Black Rock Desert to its pre-event condition.
The work ranges from removing temporary structures to picking up large and small bits of escaped trash (onsite and around the desert) and eradicating burn scars (the residue of fired playa sediment and ashes).
MOOP = matter out of place. The Burning Map organisers create a MOOP map based on their assessment of the state of the land after each festival. Since a main aim of the festival is to “leave no trace” this helps festival organisers to know how closely these rules are being followed and which areas of the festival site might need more interventions e.g. volunteers/educational pushes etc.
What are the positive and negative impacts of burning man festival on it’s rural location?
Positives:
It is a suitable area for a festival as it is in a very isolated area and so there are few people to be impacted by noise pollution.
The festival has a “leave no trace” policy, and attendees are required to pack out their waste.
The festival employs a playa restoration team, who spend a month after the festival removing MOOP (matter out of place).
The event brings tens of thousands of people into northern Nevada each year. In 2013 the event brought $55 million into the area.
Local businesses benefit from sales of gas, water, ice etc.
Burning Man festival has donated 1000s of dollars to local charities such as Lovelock Food Bank.
Negatives:
Since there is only one road that leads to the festival site, and it is not typically a busy route, this causes much congestion.
Since this is a rural and isolated area there are not many people to disturb. However, people who live in this area do so because they enjoy living in an isolated, rural environment. During the time of the festival the area is anything but.
Locals in nearby towns e.g. Gerlach have been shocked by the behaviour of some festival attendees. The Gerlach notice board posts rules to those visiting during the festival week, including warnings like no nudity or drug taking.
The large number of attendees and their activities can have a significant impact on the environment, including soil erosion and waste generation.
While attendees frequently obey the “leave no trace” policy on the festival site itself, often a lot of rubbish is dumped along the roadside or in the surrounding towns.
The festival is located in a fragile desert environment, the specific environment is called a playa. Vehicle traffic and people pressure leads to disruption of the ground, making dust storms more likely.
All of the burning that takes place at Burning Man leads to localised air pollution.
Advantages and disadvantages of the site used at burning man?
Advantages:
Large space: The site is spread over a vast area, providing enough space to accommodate the large number of attendees and their camps.
Remote location: The remote location of the site provides a sense of isolation and seclusion, which is ideal for creating a temporary community.
Flat terrain: The flat terrain of the desert provides a level ground for setting up camps, structures, and art installations.
Natural beauty: The desert landscape is unique and stunning, providing a beautiful backdrop for the event.
Limited distractions: The lack of internet and phone service allows attendees to disconnect from the outside world and focus on the event.
Disadvantages:
Extreme weather conditions: The desert can be extremely hot during the day and cold at night, which can be uncomfortable for attendees.
Dust storms: The desert is prone to dust storms, which can create hazardous driving conditions and affect the health of attendees.
Lack of resources: The remote location of the site means that resources such as water, food, and medical facilities are limited and need to be brought in.
Environmental impact: The large number of attendees and their activities can have a significant impact on the environment, including soil erosion and waste generation.
Accessibility: The remote location of the site can make it difficult for some attendees to travel to and from the event.
Burning Man site characteristics:
Festival Location and Environment in the Black Rock Desert, USA
Size and Geology:
* The festival is held in the vast Black Rock Desert, Nevada, USA.
* The desert is flat and dry, with alkaline clay and silt soil.
* The Quinn River, a seasonal river, drains the area.
* Heavy rainfall events and flash flooding can cause issues, as seen during the 2023 festival.
Water Supply, Food, and Waste Disposal:
* Water is a limited resource in the desert.
* Attendees bring their own food, with some vendors providing food at the festival.
* The festival has a “leave no trace” policy, but often rubbish is dumped along the roadside or in surrounding towns.
Accessibility:
* The festival site is remote and limited, with limited access.
* The catchment area includes nearby towns and cities, and attendees from around the world.
* Congestion is common due to the single, not busy road leading to the site.
Urban/Rural Location:
* The festival is located in a rural area, far from urban centres.
* The Black Rock Desert’s unique landscape and surrounding mountains and hills provide a beautiful backdrop for the festival.
* The festival is in a fragile desert environment, known as a playa, which can be disrupted by vehicle traffic and people pressure.
Proximity to Settlements:
* The festival site is far from settlements, with Gerlach being the closest town.
Where is Venice and what is its background?
Venice is an Island city in north-eastern Italy.
It is situated in a protected lagoon at the north end of the Adriatic Sea.
It is built on wooden pilings set into 118 islands and almost appears to be afloat.
Some 160 canals provide transportation routes within the city.
There are no streets for cars, only narrow passageways for walking.
The canals are spanned by more than 400 bridges.
Gondolas are the traditional means of travel, but powerboats are also used.
There are public squares, most of them small, scattered throughout the city.
What is Venice’s carrying capacity
It has been estimated that Venice’s carrying capacity is 11,250 tourists a day staying in accommodation and another 11,000 day trippers.
This figure is often rounded up to 25,000 tourists a day.
This suggests that Venice can handle about 8 million tourists a year.
Because the seasonal distribution of tourists is uneven, the carrying capacity of 25,000 tourists was exceeded in 200 days in 2000. On the seven busiest days, Venice received over 100,000 visitors.
Venice primary and secondary resources
Primary tourism resources
Primary tourism facilities are the preexisting attractions for tourism (i.e. climate, scenery, wildlife, cultural and heritage sites and indigenous people).
Venice attracts tourists who want to experience its historic centre.
Honey pot sites include St Mark’s Square and the Rialto Bridge.
Tourists want to experience traditional culture by taking a gondola ride (they often pay upwards of 100 Euros for the privilege).
Venice’s traditional “flight of the angel” carnival is also a tourist highlight in February
Secondary tourism resources
Secondary tourist facilities include accommodation, transport, catering, entertainment and shopping.
Venice has 90,000 tourist beds in its hotel and non-hotel accommodation. It has many 5* luxury options. Hotel accommodation in Venice is expensive due to high demand from tourists and because there is limited space to build more hotels.
Venice is an island and is connected to the mainland by a bridge called the Ponte della Liberta. The police have been obliged to close the Ponte della Liberta at times as Venice has been unable to cope with the influx of visitors.
Venice is famous for its Italian cuisine and, again, prices tend to be expensive due to high demand.
Positive impacts of tourism in Venice?
Preservation and Promotion of Culture and Architectural Heritage: Venice’s rich historical legacy dates back centuries and is a significant draw for tourists.
New facilities for tourists also benefit the locals.
Employment opportunities, promoting local artisans, and generating income for the local economy.
The contribution of tourism to GDP in Venice reached €1.67 billion in 2022.
Tourists’ money can be used to support the government to protect natural landscapes or cultural relics.
Tourism can improve local people’s awareness of environmental protection.
Negative impacts of tourism in Venice?
Overtourism has made it crowded and unpleasant for locals.
The culture is becoming diluted and it is no longer easy for tourists to experience the real venetian culture because of the mass production of souvenirs made in China and the rise of chain hotels and restaurants.
Protests against the tourism industry lead by locals who are increasingly moving away from Venice.
The impact of the hotel industry has pushed up housing prices making housing affordability for locals a serious issue.
Locals are leaving Venice as it has become an unpleasant and expensive place to live (175,.000 residents in 1951 to 50,000 in 2022)
Local stores have closed down to make room for souvenir shops and designer stores leaving few options for local residents to buy groceries or necessities, and leaving small businesses destroyed.
Inflation in general, including food.
Increased pollution
More light pollution from LED lights in streets
More noise pollution from people, boats and nightclubs
More water pollution from increased sewage.
Natural destruction and habitat loss from building new facilities.
Damage to marine life from sewage being untreated.
How is carrying capacity managed in Venice?
- There’s a €5 non-overnight visitor charge for those 14+ years old
This may generate extra income, but is unlikely to have a significant impact on reducing tourist numbers therefore a greater amount should be charged for people to be allowed to enter. - Cruise ships are banned from Venice to prevent flooding
Further, it limits overcrowding and loss of revenue as tourists on cruise ships often don’t spend a lot of money (as their accommodation and food is often taken care of on board).
However, only the largest cruise ships are banned therefore many smaller cruise vessels are still able to access Venice lagoon. - The local government has attempted to advertise lesser known sites around Venice to prevent overcrowding and bottlenecking in the most popular sites e.g. St Mark’s Square and the Rialto Bridge.
Advertising lesser known sites helps to spread people out – this would help to manage carrying capacity. - A city wide awareness campaign called #ENJOY AND RESPECT VENEZIA has been set up.
The campaign is designed to direct visitors towards the adoption of responsible and respectful behaviour towards the environment, landscape, artistic beauties and identity of Venice and its inhabitants.
There is still much anti-social behaviour by visitors to Venice and so it is unclear how well this campaign is working.
Where is Machu Picchu and what is it’s background?
Machu Picchu is an ancient Incan city in the country of Peru.
It is a destination for heritage tourism, which is described as travel to places of historical or cultural interest.
The nearest large settlement is the city of Cusco, and the nearest town is called Aguas Calientes.
It is located in a remote rural area that is not currently accessible by road.
It has become a tourism hotspot due to a growing interest in niche tourism destinations.
Niche tourism is specialised tourism that has developed out of a desire for diversity and something different.
It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site; however, it has been placed on the World Heritage Sites endangered list as a rapid increase in the number of tourist visitors is putting increasing pressure on the site.
Carrying capacity refers to the number of people a location can support. In 2017 Machu Picchu’s website sold an average of 3700 tickets a day. UNESCO would like to see this reduced to 800 visitors, but the Peruvian government imposed a limit of 2400.
Primary and secondary resources in Machu Picchu
Primary tourism resources
Visiting the Incan citadel.
Hiking the Inca trail to experience the nature of ten different climatic and sub zones from deserts to the tropical Andes forest in the mountains.
Mandor waterfall.
Visit temples such as ‘the temple of the moon’ or the temple of ‘the three windows’.
Rafting trips down the Urubamba river.
The nearby town Aguas Calientes has hot springs.
Look at a variety of over 400 plant species.
Overall, 200 ancient buildings can be visited.
Secondary tourism resources
Currently are no roads to Aguas
Calientes or Machu Picchu but they are planning to build a road and a cable car from the valley to the top
You can also take your car to Cusco and trek for 3 hours to Aguas Calientes from there you can take an expensive bus ride or trek for 1 hour to the top
Tickets to Machu Picchu must be bought months in advance.
Tours are done with a guide because since 2001 it is forbidden to go in without one.
When visiting Machu Picchu, you will stay in Cusco and the smaller settlement of Aguas Calientes. In Aguas Calientes there are hundreds of options for accommodations ($30 - $1,000)
Positive impacts of tourism on Machu Picchu
Brings in outside dollars to support community facilities and services that otherwise might not be developed.
Encourages civic involvement and pride.
Provides cultural exchange between hosts and guests.
Encourages the preservation and celebration of local festivals and cultural events.
Facilities and infrastructure supported by tourism (e.g. the railway) can also benefit residents.
Encourages the learning of new languages and skills.
Attracts high-spending tourists from higher socio-economic groups.
Provides governments with extra tax revenues each year through accommodation and restaurant taxes, airport taxes, sales taxes, employee income tax etc.
At $45 an entrance ticket, Machu Picchu generates $40 million a year for Peru.
Creates local jobs and business opportunities. These include those jobs directly related to tourism (hotel and tour services) and those that indirectly support tourism (such as food production and housing construction).
The multiplier effect: Brings new money into the economy.
Tourist money is returned to the local economy as it is spent over and over again.
Helps attract additional businesses and services to support the tourist industry.
Earns valuable foreign exchange.
Fosters conservation and preservation of natural, cultural and historical resources.
Could be considered a clean industry.
Negative impacts of tourism on Machu Picchu
May attract visitors whose lifestyles and ideas conflict with the community’s.
Overloading of porters on the Inca trail leads to health problems
May lead to the loss of traditional values and culture through imitation of visitor behaviour or cultural diffusion resulting from normal, everyday interaction.
Crowding and congestion on the roads, footpaths and in the narrow streets.
Tourists compete with residents for available services and facilities.
Backpackers use the local train rather than the much more luxurious and expensive tourist train.
Desecration of burial sites and the removal and display of human remains from Machu Picchu to further stimulate tourism. This has contributed to the destruction of the Incan spiritual heritage.
Inflates property values and prices of goods and services.
Employment tends to be seasonal. Workers are laid off in the low season.
Tourist numbers can be adversely affected by events beyond the control of the destination e.g,. terrorism, economic recession. This is a problem in Peru for the country is over-dependent upon tourism. 🡪 Tourism dependency
Leakage- the money earned by tourism does not stay in the country but is used to pay for imports required by tourists.
The jobs provided are usually poorly paid
Up to 2,000 people visit the Machu Picchu citadel every day, with visitor numbers growing at 6 percent a year. The site is being slowly eroded by tourists’ feet.
Machu Picchu is located among steep slopes that are constantly being eroded by heavy rains and landslides are common.
Timber has been cut along the Inca trail for fuel for cooking and forest fires in the vicinity have threatened Machu Picchu on several occasions.
Until now, the influx of visitors has been kept under control to the extent that the only way of reaching the site was by railway. But plans to build a road from Cusco and a cable car running from the valley to the top of Machu Picchu could lead to irreparable harm being done.
The number of people hiking along the Inca Trail rose from 6,000 in 1984 to 25,000 in 2024.
Unorganised urban growth in the area with human waste pumped directly into the Urubamba river.
Aguas Calientes has mushroomed in size as more hotels and restaurants have been built to accommodate the needs of tourists, and the burden is evident in the heaps of garbage piled along the banks of the Urubamba river.
Helicopters have been allowed to fly in tourists and operate low-flying tours, thereby disturbing not only the peaceful quality of the ruins, but potentially damaging them. Peru’s Institute of Natural Resources said those flights led to the disappearance of a rare species of orchid and the Andean Condor from the area.
How is carrying capacity managed in Machu Picchu?
-The amount of people hiking the Inca trail has been limited to 500 hikers per day.
Hiking the Inca Trails is not allowed without an authorised Inca Trail Guide. Licences are only given to a select group of reputable companies.
Group size may not exceed 15 visitors, and no more than 40 total, including guide, cook, porters and crew.
Reduced visitor numbers will reduce environmental pressures e.g. waste, erosion.
Guides will educate tourists about how to behave properly.
Some local companies went out of business due to reductions in the businesses that were granted licences.
- UNESCO says that the visitor number should be cut to 800 visitors and says they should wear soft shoes to reduce pressure on the ruins.
The government has recently introduced new limits of 4,500 visitors per day - far higher than that recommended by UNESCO.
- The indigenous people of Peru are working to preserve their spiritual and cultural heritage. The NGO Yachay Wasi has been established in order to campaign for the recognition and protection of the spiritual heritage of Peru’s indigenous people.
The involvement of Peru’s indigenous people in the protection and preservation of Machu Picchu is essential as it is a sacred, spiritual site for them.
Yachay Wasi have been invited to take part in the UNESCO World Heritage Indigenous Peoples Council of Experts with the aim of ensuring that indigenous concerns, including sacred site protection, be included in U.N. agendas.
Where is the Maldives located?
The Maldives is a south Asian island nation, located in the Indian Ocean.
It is a popular destination for beach and luxury tourism.
EVIDENCE TOURISM IS AN EFFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY FOR THE MALDIVES
Tourism has been an effective development strategy for the Maldives. It has become the most important industry in the country (overtaking the fishing industry). It accounts for 30% of GDP.
The development of tourism has fostered the overall growth of the country’s economy, with the Maldives having progressed from a low income (LIC) to a middle income country (MIC). Today its GNI per capita is 21,000 USD.
Tourism in the Maldives leads to a positive multiplier effect as it leads to direct as well as indirect employment and income generation opportunities in other related industries.
Although being heavily reliant on tourism has been problematic for the Maldives, due to external shocks such as Covid-19, tourism is now back to pre-Covid levels.
Many of the world’s most popular and luxurious hotel chains have resorts in the Maldives. For example Four Seasons & Ritz Carlton etc. These brands are internationally acclaimed and so draw in many tourists for the Maldives.
Not all of the tourism accommodation in the Maldives is TNC owned. In recent years there have been more investments made by local businesses, as well as the establishment of traditional local guesthouses, kickstarting local island, community-based tourism.
Local people in the Maldives benefit from infrastructure projects to support tourism such as increased ferry routes, airport developments etc.
EVIDENCE TOURISM IS NOT AN EFFECTIVE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY FOR THE MALDIVES
The government will invest in tourists rather than helping the local people.
Displacement of traditional industries.
Tourism is seasonal meaning workers may be laid off during non peak times.
A lot of jobs in the tourism industry are not well paid.
Foreign businesses tend to overtake the local businesses, forcing closure of small businesses to shut down. This hurts local economies.
An over-reliance on one single industry i.e. tourism can be problematic for a country as tourism is vulnerable to internal and external shocks. For example covid 19 was an external shock that impacted the Maldivian economy as the closure of borders led to a loss of tourism income of between $940 million.
In the Maldives tourism is dominated by enclave resorts (also known as all inclusive resorts). Enclave resorts are resorts where food, drinks, accommodation and activities are included. This means that tourists are not spending their money in the local economy e.g. local restaurants. Food consumed can often be imported, meaning local producers do not benefit. Most of the resorts are TNC owned which leads to economic leakage.
The Maldives is an island nation - made up of an archipelago of many small islands. Each resort development has its own island. Local people live in the capital city Male or on other local islands. Sometimes tourism workers will live away from home on tourist islands while they are working. This separates them from their family life which harms social development.
Where is Costa Rica and what is it’s level of development?
Costa Rica is located in Central America. It borders Nicaragua and Panama.
Costa Rica is a middle income country with a GNI per capita of 12,472.44 USD (2021)
Tourism growth in Costa Rica
International tourism has grown enormously in Costa Rica.
The tourism boom began in 1987, with the number of visitors up from 329,000 in 1988, through 1.03 million in 1999, over 2 million in 2008, to a historical record of 2.66 million foreign visitors in 2015.
On average Costa Rica attracts 1.7 million visitors per year.
25% of the country is designated for environmental protection through National Parks and so tourists visit to explore nature, e.g. rainforest environments such as Monteverde Cloud Forest. The country is one of the most biodiverse in the world and tourists can encounter many unique species in their natural habitats e.g., sloths, tapirs and many species of monkey, tree frog etc.
Costa Rica also has beautiful beaches with nesting turtles and coral reefs.
Costa Rica includes mountainous environments and volcanoes, including Arenal.
There are also many beautiful waterfalls.
What are the positive impacts of ecotourism in Costa Rica?
Positive
The Santa Elena Cloud Forest Reserve is one of many reserves to be directly controlled by the local community. This means that local people have direct control over tourism in the area and manage it sustainably.
Rural areas of developing countries often experience out-migration, but local people are happy with the opportunities on offer in remote areas such as Monteverde and so they stay there and young people are even attracted to the area.
Local arts and crafts have been rejuvenated as there is a market for these goods due to tourism.
Education is two ways - tourists learn from locals and locals learn from tourists.
Tourism is now Costa Rica’s most important industry, responsible for 10% of GDP.
New businesses have been created by locals, such as in Monteverde where there are hotels, bed and breakfasts, restaurants, craft stalls etc and many of these are locally owned.
Local farmers provide much of the food consumed by tourists.
Because a lot of the businesses are small and locally owned the economic benefits should be spread more evenly.
Many of the experiences for tourism are designed to educate tourists about the importance of the environment e.g. the Butterfly Garden in Monteverde has a biodiversity centre.
25% of Costa Rica is protected by National Parks. The National Parks include educational centres for tourists as well as designated hiking trails. Tourists are warned not to leave the trails so they don’t cause further disturbance to wildlife.
Small scale developments e.g. 70% of hotels in Costa Rica have less than 20 rooms - this leads to less pressure on the environment.
What are the negative impacts of ecotourism in Costa Rica?
Tourism has placed a strain on infrastructure. For example tourism strains local water supplies, rubbish collection, electricity and telecommunications.
The price of land has increased pricing out locals.
Some types of tourists do not bring so many economic benefits e.g. Costa Rica attracts many backpackers who typically spend little money.
The environment in Costa Rica is very fragile and in the long-term tourism may be doing sustained damage e.g., backpackers often hike off trails and disturb wildlife.
Zip lining is a popular activity in Costa Rica’s rainforest canopy. However, many local people believe this is more detrimental than beneficial. Locals say that it would be better to walk than to zipline in order to observe wildlife and that the noise of the ziplines disturbs the animals.
Is ecotourism in Costa Rica sustainable?
FOR
Many people based in La Fortuna have swapped less sustainable activities to work in ecotourism operations. This is because they can earn more money, for example monthly salaries typically increased five-fold after exchanging farming for tourism.
In Costa Rica, land that has been previously damaged by deforestation is being converted back to forest by local people who want to run ecotourism operations. For example, in La Fortuna a local group has restored 15 acres of farmland to forest. This began in 1980 and the forest is now rejuvenated. The group has built a wooden viewing platform so that tourists can conduct canopy walks, educating them about the rainforest environment. Here it can be seen that ecotourism can be environmentally beneficial as it has led to due to reforestation. It is also socially sustainable as tourists are being educated about the importance of the rainforest environment.
Monteverde Cloud Forest is one of just 12 primary rainforests in the world – this is a forest that has never been cut. Ecotourism is carefully managed in this area and tourists are able to appreciate and understand this unique environment via hiking trails, hummingbird galleries and through visiting the biodiversity centre. Local ownership of businesses in Monteverde is high and local farmers provide most of the food consumed by tourists. Monteverde does need very careful management however, as it has increased in popularity, with visitor numbers of just 470 tourists in 1974 rising to 70,000 per year since the late 1990s.
The growing popularity of ecotourism in Costa Rica has led to greater environmental protection as the government has designated ¼ of Costa Rica’s landmass as National Parks. This would not be possible without the interest of environmental tourists who are willing to pay a fee to enter Costa Rica’s National Parks.
AGAINST
In 1998, the United Nations World Tourism Organisation published a report forecasting what tourists might be demanding in the years up to 2020. It said the “trendiest” destinations would be the “tops of the highest mountains, the depths of the oceans and the ends of the earth”. But should tourists be allowed to access some of the most extreme and sensitive wildlife habitats on the planet? Wouldn’t it be better if such places were restricted to all but a few scientists and indigenous communities in order to better protect them?
In Costa Rica, evidence suggests that even with careful management, over the long term, disruption caused by tourists could be detrimental to the fragile environment as many animals simply do not react well to tourists in their backyard.
Ecotourism has become a buzzword and so not all of the activities that are marketed as ecotourism activities are actually meeting the aims of ecotourism. For example, zip lining is a popular activity in Costa Rica’s rainforest canopy. However, many local people believe this is more detrimental than beneficial. Locals state that it would be better to walk than to zipline in order to observe wildlife and that the noise of the ziplines disturbs the animals.
What factors determine the hierarchy of its teams? Think about success, wealth, power, global reach
The Premier League is the only level one league in England, so it is top of the hierarchy in terms of football leagues.
The Premier League is often considered to be the number one league in the world as well, because of its viewing figures, average attendances and income generation.
In terms of the football team at the top of the hierarchy, things get a little bit more complicated. However, using the following measures then Manchester United, Manchester City or Liverpool could appear at the top of the hierarchy.
Biggest Stadium: Manchester United (Old Trafford)
Average Attendance: Manchester United
Most Premier League Titles: Manchester United
Current Champions: Manchester City
Most FA Cup titles: Manchester United
Most Champions League Titles: Manchester United (20)
Highest Wage Bill: Chelsea and Manchester City
Richest Club: Newcastle United
Describe the spatial distribution of teams
Looking at the list of Premier League clubs below, a city needs a population of about 250,000 to support a Premier League football club. Bournemouth is a current exception (it has less than 250,000 people but does have a Premier League club).
There are also some big cities in England that don’t have Premier League football teams; Derby and Sunderland are a couple, but even more noticeable are Leeds (535,000) and Bristol (420,000).
Explain the factors influencing the spatial distribution of teams in the league. Think about settlement patterns (urban/rural, accessibility, supporter base, wealth, infrastructure
Premier league clubs are usually found in cities with populations of more than 250,000 people, these large cities provide the large numbers of supporters required to keep the industry profitable. In large cities there is enough money in the area to invest in stadiums and training facilities, as well as a large local fan-base to attend the weekly games during the football season.
Looking at the map of the distribution of Premier League clubs below, it can be seen that the teams are concentrated in the South/South-East of England, the Midlands and the North West. There is only one club in the North East and there are no clubs in the South West of England or East Anglia.
Deprived areas tend to not have Premier League teams nearby. Quality of living, income and hierarchy are linked as for teams to be successful they need fans to buy tickets and the cost of tickets is expensive. The North East is a more deprived part of England explaining why there are fewer successful clubs. The South West has no premier league clubs because it is a more sparsely populated area of the country. It is also a more deprived area, with lower wages than the UK average, meaning people have less disposable income to spend on leisure.
Premier League teams are also often found in cities with big institutions i.e. universities. This provides a larger fan base for the team.
Many teams that have become more successful have redeveloped their stadiums, this has often meant moving the stadium from inner city areas to the rural urban fringe. This provides more room for expansion, meaning a larger capacity stadium and more modern facilities to draw in fans. Areas at the rural urban fringe can be accessed by ring roads and train lines and there is also ample space for car parking. For example, Manchester City moved out of Moss Side (an inner city area) to create Etihad Stadium. This move away from local supporters allowed the club to to attract those coming from a greater distance with more income.
Towards the bottom of the football hierarchy, the lower tier teams tend to be located in smaller English towns and are more likely to have smaller, local audiences. These clubs are composed of semi-professional and amateur players and so appeal less to a wider audience. Their matches are not featured on TV or in the national press which limits their fan-bases. These clubs lack big sponsorship deals and investment and so sometimes they close due to going bankrupt, others may merge to pool resources.
Describe and explain distribution of supporters (refer to sphere of influence)
Whilst the location of teams in the English Premier League has stayed roughly constant, the location of supporters has developed over time. The increasing prevalence of ICT and televisions and the development of transport infrastructure has resulted in reduced friction of distance, enabling more people to watch and even visit matches, causing the exponential growth of its supporters. Furthermore, many people from newly industrialised countries (NICs) have gained this viewing access, leading to an increasingly large number of supporters. For example, whilst there are thought to be only a few million Liverpool FC supporters in England, there are currently over 200 million supporters in Malaysia, Indonesia and other Southeast Asian countries.
The Premier League has a global sphere of influence. In particular the teams referred to as the Big 6 (Manchester United, Manchester City, Liverpool, Chelsea, Arsenal, Tottenham Hotspur) capture the attention of millions worldwide. This can be seen in their Instagram followers. Manchester United has the most with over 50 million followers on instagram illustrating that it has a global audience.
Foreign investment into the league has also increased the magnitude of the Premier League and the international supporters. For example, the purchasing of Chelsea FC for £2.3 billion in 2003 by the Russian Roman Abramovich has increased the prevalence of Chelsea supporters in Eastern Europe, and also enabled more money to be spent on promoting Chelsea FC as a global brand.
