Global Climate Vulnerability and Resilience Flashcards
What is acidification?
The change in the chemical composition of soil (mainly a change in pH value) which may trigger the circulation of toxic metals.
What is afforestation?
Planting seeds or trees to make a forest on land that has not been a forest recently, or which has never been a forest.
What is albedo?
The proportion of solar radiation that is reflected by a particular body or surface. Snow has a high albedo and does not absorb heat, whereas concrete has a lower albedo and absorbs heat from the sun.
What is an aquifer?
A permeable rock that will hold water and allow its passage.
What does anthropogenic mean?
Human-related processes and/or impacts.
What does arid refer to?
Areas with less than 250mm of precipitation per year.
What is the atmosphere?
An open energy system receiving energy from both sun and earth, made up of 4 distinct layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
What is biodiversity?
The diversity of plant and animal life in a particular habitat or in the world as a whole.
What is a biodiversity hotspot?
An area with a particularly high level of biodiversity, e.g., Amazon Rainforest.
What is a biome?
A naturally occurring organic community of plants and animals.
What is the biosphere?
The regions of the surface and atmosphere of the earth or another planet occupied by living organisms.
What is a carbon sink?
An environmental reservoir that absorbs and stores more carbon than it releases.
What is climate change?
Long-term sustained change in the average global climate.
What is deforestation?
The process of destroying a forest and replacing it with something else, especially by an agricultural system.
What is desertification?
The gradual transformation of habitable land into desert.
What is an ecosystem?
A dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.
What is energy balance?
The natural phenomenon whereby the energy entering Earth’s atmosphere equals the energy leaving it, keeping the temperature relatively constant over time.
What is an energy budget?
The balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation which prevents earth from heating up or cooling down.
What is the (natural) Greenhouse Effect?
The process by which certain gases allow short-wave radiation from the sun to pass through and heat up the earth but trap long-wave radiation from the earth, leading to warming.
What is the enhanced Greenhouse Effect?
Results from human activities which increase the concentration of naturally occurring greenhouse gases, leading to global warming and climate change.
What are external forcings?
Natural processes both outside and within the atmosphere that can force changes in climate.
What is global brightening?
An increasing amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface caused by an intensification of solar radiation.
What is global dimming?
A worldwide decline of the intensity of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface, caused by air pollution and natural events.
What is global warming?
The increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s near-surface air in the 20th and early 21st centuries and its projected continuation.
What is groundwater?
Water found below the surface which is not combined chemically with any minerals present.
What is the hydrosphere?
All the waters on the earth’s surface, such as lakes and seas, and sometimes including water over the earth’s surface, such as clouds.
What is insolation?
The heat energy from the sun consisting of the visible spectrum together with ultraviolet and infrared rays.
What is longwave radiation?
The energy radiating from the Earth as infrared radiation at low energy to Space.
What is negative feedback?
Occurs when a system adjusts itself in ways that lessen or cancel out the effect of the original change.
What is the ozone layer?
A region of the upper atmosphere containing relatively high levels of ozone, located mostly within the stratosphere, which absorbs large amounts of solar ultraviolet radiation.
What is positive feedback?
Knock-on effects in natural systems which amplify/increase changes that have already started to occur.
What is reforestation?
Re-establishing a forest after its removal.
What is shortwave radiation?
The energy emitted from the sun which has short wavelengths in the visible light and ultra-violet spectra.
What is soil degradation?
A severe reduction in quality of soils, including soil erosion, salinization, and soil exhaustion.
What is solar forcing?
Radiative forcings caused by changes in incoming solar radiation.
What is sustainable agriculture?
Agricultural systems emphasizing biological relationships and natural processes, which maintain soil fertility.
How is food insecurity managed in Bangladesh by NGOs
Climate-Resistant Crops – Scientists and farmers are developing flood-, drought-, and salt-tolerant rice varieties, such as “BRRI Dhan 67,” which survives underwater for longer periods.
Improved Farming Techniques – Farmers are using raised-bed farming and floating gardens to cope with unpredictable weather.
NGO Support – Organizations like BRAC and the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) provide training, seeds, and technology to help farmers adapt.
Early Warning Systems – Weather forecasts, and mobile alerts help farmers prepare for floods and cyclones.
Diversification – Encouraging fish farming and livestock alongside crops reduces the risk of food shortages.
How are the impacts of cyclones managed in Bangladesh by NGOs
Cyclone Shelters – Thousands of strong shelters have been built along the coast. NGOs like BRAC ensure they are accessible to women, children, and people with disabilities. Some shelters now have separate spaces for women’s privacy and safety.
Early Warning Systems – The government, with help from groups like the World Meteorological Organization, sends cyclone alerts via loudspeakers, mobile phones, and radios.
Community Volunteers – The Cyclone Preparedness Programme (CPP), supported by the Red Crescent, trains thousands of volunteers to warn and evacuate people before a storm.
Stronger Homes and Infrastructure – NGOs and aid agencies help build storm-resistant homes. Roads and embankments are improved to prevent flooding in villages.
How is flooding managed in Bangladesh by NGOs
Goalbari is an agricultural village which have a local women’s cooperative has successfully created strategies to adapt to the floods:
- Houses were raised 1.2 m above the floodwaters
- Floating beds of hyacinths are used as a base on which to grow vegetables as the beds rise and fall with the floodwaters. Avoiding damage from floods
What exposure to climate change risks is there in Bangladesh
- Bangladesh suffered economic losses worth $3.72 billion and witnessed 185 extreme weather events due to climate change
- 90 million Bangladeshis (56 percent of the population) live in “high climate exposure areas,”, with a high population density, ranked 12 leading to people living in flood prone areas with 1 million deaths in the last 200 years.
- 2/3 are 4.5m above sea level and 1/3 by the coast of Bangladesh
Climate change impacts on people in Bangladesh
- By 2050, one in every seven people in Bangladesh will be displaced by climate change. Bangladesh may lose approximately 11% of its land by then, and up to 18 million people may have to migrate because of sea-level rise alone.
- When the flood water subsided, fields were too salty for shrimp, village buildings were flattened and there was no fresh water to drink.
- In 2020, Cyclone Amphan took the lives of 10 people in Bangladesh (and 70 others in India), left thousands homeless, and destroyed at least 176,007 hectares of agricultural land in 17 coastal districts. It was the strongest cyclone ever recorded in the country’s history.
How connected are peoples lives to extreme environment in Bangladesh and do population demographics lead to heightened vulnerability
Closely related due to high primary sector employment such as farming and fishing near river/ coasts which are affected by floods and storms, plus due to the fact that it is commonly subsistence farming when crops are destroyed so does food
Women and disadvantaged groups are suffering more during disasters as they don’t receive warning in time and women have to take care of their children, elderly and disabled.
what is Bangladesh ability to cope against climate change
- In the pre-disaster stage of a flood, residents can try to prepare by increasing their savings, raising their house on stilts and moving important items to safer places. In the post-disaster period, it will sell assets to buy food and equipment.
- Developed its flood action plan: sluice gates built on rivers, built 5700km of embankments, dug 5000km draining channels to divert water from building.
- 200 flood shelters, residents can prepare by saving or raising house on stilts
Conclusion: How vulnerable is the Bangladesh to climate change?
Food insecurity. due to storms and salination of soil
Water scarcity: reduced rainfall, longer droughts and contamination of water with sea
Land degradation: River bank/ coastal erosion and sea level rise consuming 10.9% of Bangladesh.
Greater loss of livelihoods and displacement rely on infrastructure
What exposure to climate change risks is there in the UK
- Changing weather patterns will result in:
Drought and heatwaves in the south-east of England will become more common Flooding in the north-west will become more common (due to an increase in winter precipitation) - The total rise in sea levels off the coasts of the UK may exceed 1 metre and a rise of 2 metres cannot be excluded.
- The frequency of storm events is expected to increase in combination with the rise in sea level, is expected to lead to an increase in flooding.
- Land is sinking in the south and east of England (due to the sheer weight of urban areas), whereas in the north land is rising (due to the slow rebound of the land following the last ice age). Therefore, the risk posed by rising sea levels will be more severe in the east due to these localized isostatic changes.
Climate change impacts on people in the UK
- By 2050 more than 180,000 homes will be at risk of flooding
- The cost of flooding in the UK is currently estimated at £340 million per year, this is predicted to rise to £430 million if temperatures rise by 2 degrees.
- There will be a northward shift in farming zones which will improve pastoral farming in the northwest. Timber yields may also increase in the northwest but decrease in the south There may also be further expansion of viticulture (wine growing) in England.
- Higher temperatures and reduced precipitation in the summer, especially in the south of England, could lead to enhanced potential for tourism.
How connected are peoples lives to the extreme environment in the UK
- In the UK, people’s lives are not closely linked to the extreme environment as many more people work in tertiary jobs rather than in the primary sector e.g. farming and fishing which may be more affected by rising sea levels and changing temperatures.
- However, there are many densely populated areas of the east coast that are at risk from coastal flooding e.g. Kent, Essex and London.
Do population demographics lead to heightened vulnerability in the UK
- The UK is a high-income country meaning that people are less vulnerable as they have resources to help them if they suffer from the impacts of climate change e.g., flood insurance, savings, credit cards.
- However, there are many disadvantaged coastal communities, at risk of the physical impacts of climate change and which already suffer from high levels of deprivation or geographic isolation.
- The UK has an ageing population and almost all the local authorities with the largest percentage of over-65s are located on the coast. Older people may be more vulnerable to climate change as their bodies may be too frail to cope with increased heat waves.
What is the capacity to cope against climate change in the UK
- The UK has a high capacity to cope as they have an awareness of the risks posed and have the resources to address the potential impacts.
- There are already management strategies in place to protect settlements e.g., coastal defenses and the Thames Barrier, which protects London from coastal surges.
- There are also plans to upgrade coastal defenses as needed (although this will be very expensive).
Conclusion: How vulnerable is the UK to climate change?
- According to the CCVI the UK has low vulnerability to climate change as they have a score of 9.96/10
- The UK has low overall vulnerability as they have a resilient population and a high capacity to cope with the changes brought about by climate change.
- However, the impacts of climate change will not be uniform for the UK and its ageing population and disadvantaged coastal communities will present challenges. Another challenge will be the huge costs that will be associated with upgrading the UK’s coastal defenses.
Paris agreement 2015 Objectives
To limit the temperature increase to 1.5 celsius above pre-industrial levels
Climate change agreements and finance - help developing countries
Global peaking and ‘climate neutrality’ (Art. 4) Parties aim for global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions, recognizing longer peaking for developing countries, to balance emissions and removals in the second half of the century.
Mitigation (Art. 4) - The Paris Agreement mandates all Parties to prepare, communicate, and maintain a nationally determined contribution (NDC) and pursue domestic measures. Parties must communicate their NDCs every 5 years, with each successive NDC representing the highest possible ambition. Developed countries lead by setting absolute reduction targets.
Sinks and reservoirs (Art.5) - The Paris Agreement also encourages Parties to conserve and enhance, as appropriate, sinks and reservoirs of GHGs as referred to in Article 4, paragraph 1(d) of the Convention, including forests.
Voluntary cooperation/Market- and non-market-based approaches (Art. 6) - The Paris Agreement requires all Parties to set a nationally determined contribution (NDC) and implement domestic measures, with developed countries setting absolute reduction targets every 5 years.
Adaptation (Art. 7) - The Paris Agreement aims to enhance adaptive capacity, strengthen resilience, and reduce climate change vulnerability globally. It encourages national adaptation efforts through international cooperation and acknowledges the global challenge of adaptation. Parties should develop National Adaptation Plans.
Loss and damage (Art. 8) - The Paris Agreement emphasizes preventing and minimizing climate change-related loss and damage, emphasizing sustainable development’s role in reducing such risks. Parties are encouraged to cooperate and support this through the Warsaw International Mechanism.
Finance, technology and capacity-building support (Art. 9, 10 and 11) - The Paris Agreement emphasizes the responsibility of developed countries to support developing countries in building clean, climate-resilient futures, encouraging voluntary contributions and balancing adaptation and mitigation. It strengthens international cooperation on technology development, capacity-building, and climate change education.
Climate change education, training, public awareness, public participation and public access to information (Art 12)
Transparency (Art. 13) The Paris Agreement promotes transparency, implementation, and compliance through a robust accounting system, international technical expert review, and a mechanism for non-adversarial compliance. It requires annual reporting to the CMA and ensures flexibility for Parties’ capabilities.
Global Stocktake (Art. 14) A global stocktake in 2023 and every 5 years will assess progress towards the Agreement’s long-term goal, enhancing actions and international cooperation on climate action based on available science.
Decision 1/CP.21 aims to improve action before 2020 by strengthening technical examination processes, providing urgent finance, technology, and support, and fostering high-level engagement. It also encourages non-Party stakeholders to scale up efforts and recognizes the importance of strengthening local communities and indigenous peoples’ knowledge, technologies, practices, and incentives through domestic policies and carbon pricing.
Paris agreement 2015 Who signed up? Who didn’t?
195 members signed the treaty and around 132 of them ratified it (sign or give formal consent to (a treaty, contract, or agreement), making it officially valid.)
As of 2025, all 197 UN countries have endorsed the Paris Agreement, with 195 formally approving it. The only countries that have yet to formally join the agreement are Iran, Libya, and Yemen.
Paris agreement 2015 Successes and failures
Successes
- Global participation (all but 4 countries are involved in the agreement: the USA, Yemen, Iran and Libya)
- Growth of renewable energy, more countries are investing in renewable energy sources and reducing their reliance on fossil fuels
- Net zero emission pledges
- Climate finance commitment- developed nations pledged to provide 100 billion USD a year to developing countries in order to support them in climate action
Failures
- Weak enforcement, it relies on voluntary commitments and has no legal consequences for those who don’t join
- Trump’s withdrawal from the agreement during both his terms
- Emissions still haven’t been cut as much, with the world still on track for rising temperatures of 2.5-3 degrees C
- Developed nations have failed to meet their pledge of donating 100 billion per year
- Countries such as China and India are still dependent on fossil fuels for their energy.
Climate change conferences and treaties
what is it and pros/cons
Adaptation and Mitigation
Climate change conferences are annual conferences that allow countries to come together to discuss climate change issues and create legislation to manage climate change.
Pros:
- In 2015 195 countries signed the Paris Agreement - it is the first climate change treaty to apply to all countries. This gives us hope for the future that all countries are committed to avoiding dangerous climate change.
- Some important agreements were made at COP29 in 2024, that saw wealthy nations pledge $300 billion in climate finance for developing countries
Cons:
- It has been said that the pledges made through NDCs are not challenging enough. For example, based on the promises made by individual countries we are on track for 2.4 degrees temperature rise - this is catastrophic climate change and means the Paris Agreement is currently on track to fail.
- $300 billion in climate finance was pledged at COP29, however, this fell short of the trillion dollar figure demanded by developing countries.
Carbon offsetting and carbon trading
what is it and pros/cons
Mitigation
Carbon offset: Activities or projects that aim to reduce or offset carbon emissions by funding activities/projects that reduce emissions elsewhere e.g. investing in tree planting or renewable energy projects.
Pros:
Reduces Overall Emissions
Supports Green Initiatives
Easy for Individuals & Businesses
Cons:
Not a True Solution
Difficult to Measure Impact
Potential for Greenwashing
Long-Term Effectiveness Varies
Carbon trading: Attempts to create a market in which emission permits issued by governments can be traded. Companies that exceed their targets have to buy emission permits from those who do not - this market system helps to limit emissions.
Pros:
Encourages Emission Reductions
Promotes Green Innovation
Flexible for Companies
Funds Climate Projects
Cons:
Can Be Exploited
Unequal Impact
Difficult to Regulate
May Delay Real Change
Geoengineering
what is it and pros/cons
Mitigation
Geoengineering artificially manipulates Earth’s environmental systems to reduce climate change effects, while not addressing its causes, but could aid in combating greenhouse gas emissions. E.g Carbon captures, aerosols, space mirrors.
Carbon capture and storage
Pros:
Reduces CO₂ Emissions
Works with Existing Industries
Helps Fight Climate Change
Can Be Used for Other Purpose
Cons:
Expensive
Not 100% Effective
Energy-Intensive
Storage Risks
Doesn’t Solve the Root Problem
Aerosols
Pros:
Reduces amount of solar radiation that comes to earth
Shows to work by mother nature
Just enough to change global temperatures
Space mirrors
Pros:
Reduces Global Warming
No Impact on Daily Life
Buys time
Cons:
Expensive
Difficult to Build
Unpredictable Effects
Doesn’t Fix Root Cause
Other government led mitigation strategies e.g. renewable energy
what is it and pros/cons
Mitigation
- Replacing fossil fuels with reneable energy
- Reduce nitrogen-containing fertilizers in agriculture and livestock by changing feedstock and selective breeding to minimize methane emissions.
- The government is promoting energy conservation through education, investment in electric car charging stations, congestion charges, and tolls in cities like Stockholm.
Pros:
- Reduces greenhouse gas emissions
- Job creation - more employees will be needed for the renewable energy sector
- Addresses the issue at the source and prevents future growth of emissions, unlike adaptation strategies
Cons:
- Governments have lots of restrictions and decision making can be a long process, so they can’t respond to changes and make fast decisions
- Renewable energy and electric cars are in early stages of implementation and development, so they are more expensive and less likely to be used. Because of this, developing countries will be less likely to adopt these things.
Government led adaptation (e.g. emigration, water projects, food security projects)
what is it and pros/cons
Adaptation
The Netherlands has implemented flood management strategies, such as building dikes, dams, and floodgates, to prevent flooding from rising sea levels. The Afsluitdijk, built between 1920-1925, withheld a 1953 flood, and governments enforce sustainable practices through laws and regulations.
Pros:
Flood management strategies can be effective, especially when hard engineering strategies are used. This gives the public confidence and protects them from economic losses.
Cons:
- Expensive leading to inadequate funds and finance. This also means all countries aren’t able to implement these sorts of projects.
- Information and knowledge gaps in developing countries hinder effective planning and investment decisions.
Describe the functioning of the atmospheric system
The energy balance is the balance between incoming energy from the sun and outgoing energy from the atmosphere.
Energy released from the sun is in the form of shortwave light and ultraviolet energy.
The earth releases long wave infrared energy.
The functioning of the atmospheric system:
- The atmosphere is an open system, receiving radiation from both the sun and the earth itself.
- The energy of the earth is very small, but it does have an effect.
- Incoming solar radiation is referred to as insolation.
- The main energy that drives all of our weather systems and our climate comes from the sun.
- The vast majority of this energy is absorbed at the equator whereas energy is generally lost in the polar regions.
- However, this energy is redistributed to higher latitudes by wind and air circulations.
SUNSPOTS
Sunspots are dark spots on the sun’s surface.
Times of maximum sunspot activity are associated with a very slight increase in the energy output from the sun.
Ultraviolet radiation increases dramatically during high sunspot activity, which can have a large effect on the Earth’s atmosphere.
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Explosive volcanic eruptions have been shown to have a short-term cooling effect on the atmosphere if they eject large quantities of Sulphur Dioxide into the stratosphere. This can have an effect on climate because of ash and SO2 reducing the reception of solar radiation on the Earth’s surface. This is referred to as global dimming.
Milankovitch Cycles
Over time these three cyclic events vary the amount of solar radiation that is received on the Earth’s surface.
The cycles involved are eccentricity/elliptical (100,000 years), obliquity (41,000 years), and precession (26,000 years).
The causes of global dimming
- Dimming is caused by an increase in particulates and sulfate aerosols, which reflect sunlight back out to space.
- The particles also change the characteristics of clouds as they act as seeds for water droplets. Water coalesces around the particles and form larger droplets with a higher albedo, which reflect more solar radiation back to space.
- The source of such particles may be natural (e.g. volcanic eruptions) or anthropogenic (caused by humans), generally through the combustion of fossil fuels (coal and oil) and wood.
- Major volcanic eruptions generally produce carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas, GHG), ash particles and sulfur-rich gases. Such eruptions can have a significant impact on incoming solar radiation (among other things).
Sources of methane
- Waterlogged conditions in the world’s wetlands and rice fields encourage anaerobic decomposition of organic matter, which releases methane.
- Methane is a byproduct of the digestive processes of herbivores such as cows, sheep and termites. It is also a minor byproduct of our own digestive processes.
- The oceans produce methane through microbial activity and mud volcanoes on the seafloor.
- Fossil fuel production, distribution and use are the largest anthropogenic contributors of methane to the atmosphere. The extraction and combustion of all fossil fuels releases methane into the atmosphere.
- Landfill and waste disposal sites are sources of methane through the decomposition of organic matter in solid domestic waste.
- Burning biomass and using biofuels releases methane. This can be through burning off crop waste, land clearance, forest fires, cooking and heating, among other things.
reasons for the rise in methane
- There has been an increase in the amount of fossil fuels being burned.
- Changing diet has meant an increase in the amount of meat and rice that is consumed globally. This has increased the number of herbivores (cows and sheep) that are kept and the number of rice paddies, both of which produce large amounts of methane.
- A steadily increasing population is generating ever-increasing amounts of waste, the decomposition of which generates methane.
- Rising temperatures increase methane emissions from fresh water.
- Rising temperatures are also exposing permafrost, which is thawing and releasing additional methane.
Why do sea levels rise?
The two major causes of global sea level rise are thermal expansion caused by warming of the ocean (since water expands as it warms) and increased melting of land-based ice, such as glaciers and ice sheets.
Disparities in vulnerability to climate change due to demographic factors
Poorer people
Less able to afford rising food prices
Forced to live in marginal areas due to cheaper housing
More susceptible to diseases
Women
Less likely to have received education over men in developing countries. This means they get less access to information and services that might help them understand and cope with the impact of climate change.
Traditional clothing impedes the ability to run or swim if they have to escape a climate change caused disaster. May not be able to migrate because in some societies they must require permission from male relatives.
Old people
Less actively involved in the workforce meaning they lack financial resources needed to adapt to for example rising food prices.
At risk to the spread of vector-borne diseases like malaria which are expanding due to climate change.
Children
At risk to the spread of vector-borne diseases like malaria which are expanding due to climate change.
Direct impacts, for example the effects of heatwaves extreme weather events
Heat waves - increased heat causes cardiovascular and respiratory problems - elderly people are vulnerable - can cause heat syncope (fainting)
Extreme weather events such as storms and floods can cause injuries or deaths.
Anthrax outbreaks - As permafrost melts anthrax spores are released which causes rare diseases in animals. Over 2,300 reindeer have died in northern russia, and humans are contracting the same disease.
Impacts linked to changes in the biosphere, such as crop yield and pests.
Water and food security - Climate change can affect access to clean water and food supplies due to drought or flooding. This leads to malnutrition and dehydration
Indirect impacts linked to changes in resources and environment
Increased burden on health systems - climate change leads to extreme weather events and a rise in illness linked to these changes, healthcare systems can become overwhelmed, making it harder to provide care to those in need
Air quality - air pollution worsens due to climate change; which leads to respiratory issues (asthma & lung diseases)
Mitigation
Act to reduce the severity or intensity of climate change by reducing the output of greenhouse gases and/or increasing greenhouse stores
Adaption
Adjust to changes in the environment, for example by building coastal defences, rather than trying to stop climate change from happening
Civil Society
Society considered as a community of citizens linked by common interests and collective activity.
Civil society is the “third sector” of society, along with government and business. It comprises civil society organizations and non-governmental organizations.
Roles of Civil Society in responding to climate change
Raising awareness: such as by simplifying climate research and communicating it to the general public e.g. 350.org.
Advocacy: an individual or group that aims to influence decision making e.g. through petitions.
Lobbying: explicit attempts by activists to persuade politicians, journalists or development organisations e.g. the World Bank etc toward a particular viewpoint.
Campaigns: If awareness raising and advocacy continues for a period of time it can be considered a campaign. Civil Society groups that engage in campaigns relating to climate change include Greenpeace, WWF, 350.org etc
Protests and demonstrations: Protests may be related to a single climate change issue, such as the Keystone XL Pipeline, or they may be more general in nature, such as street protests by organised groups.
Corporate boycotts: To boycott means to refuse to have dealings with (a person, a store, an organization, etc.) usually to express disapproval or to force acceptance of certain conditions. Such strategies are used by civil society to place pressure on companies that are acting unethically or are fueling climate change.
Direct action: The work done by NGOs or other civil societies for people who do not have the financial means to do it themselves e.g. water wells provided to villages in the Sahel by charities to counter the impacts of droughts.
