Lectures 4-7 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the function of the cardiovascular system?
A
It is an integrated system providing active muscles with a continuous stream of nutrients and oxygen, and removal of metabolic by-products
Clotting stops bleeding
Protects body against disease and infection
Transports hormones to target cells and organs
Helps regulate body temperature
2
Q
Heart structure
What is the pericardium
A
Tight membrane sac that encloses the myocardium
Contains some fluid - allowing it to protect the heart muscle from friction
3
Q
Heart structure
What is the epicardium
A
The outside layer of the heart
4
Q
Heart structure
What is the endocardium
A
The inside layer of the heart
5
Q
Heart structure
What is the myocardium
A
Cardiac muscle
6
Q
What is the cardiac cycle made up of?
A
Systole (0.3s) and diastole (0.5s)
7
Q
What is systole
A
Ventricular contraction
8
Q
What is diastole
A
Ventricular relaxation
9
Q
What is end systolic volume?
A
Volume of blood in ventricles at end of systole
10
Q
What is strike volume
A
The volume of blood ejected from the left ventricle per beat
11
Q
What is end diastolic volume?
A
Volume of blood in ventricles at end of diastole
12
Q
Conducting system pathway
A
SA nose -> AV mode -> Bundle of HIS -> purkinje fibres
13
Q
What is hydrostatic pressure?
A
Pressure exerted by any fluid
14
Q
What is blood pressure?
A
Force exerted by the blood on surrounding tissues
15
Q
Resistance of the cardiovascular system is impacted by what?
A
Viscosity of blood
Length of blood vessels
Radius of blood vessels
16
Q
What is the equation for blood pressure?
A
Blood pressure = cardiac output x total peripheral resistance
17
Q
What is the equation for mean arterial pressure
A
= diastolic BP + (0.333 (systolic - diastolic BP))
18
Q
Cardiac output equation
A
Q = HR x SV
19
Q
Factors affecting blood pressure
A
Cardiac output and total peripheral resistance
20
Q
Factors affecting HR
A
Parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system (nervous system)
Epinephrine (hormonal)
21
Q
Factors affecting stroke volume
A
Sympathetic nerves and epinephrine
End diastolic volume
Afterload
22
Q
Without any activation of parasympathetic or sympathetic nerve pathway, what would HR be?
A
100bpm
23
Q
Factors affecting total peripheral resistance
A
Blood viscosity
Arterial radius
24
Q
Factors affecting the arterial radius
A
Local controls
Hormones
Sympathetic nerves
25
Look at PowerPoint slide 33 cardiovascular system for
Homeostasis BP (acute)
26
Look at recap 1:02:32 in
PowerPoint slide 34 for grey arrows to help
27
During exercise when we want to increase HR how do the nervous systems behave? And how does the hormonal system act?
Parasympathetic decreases
Sympathetic increase
Adrenaline is released
Continues to increase and plateaus at max
28
Stroke volume response to exercise
Increases in like with exercise intensity and the plateaus at 40-60% of max intensity
29
Factors that influence stroke volume
Hormone (adrenaline) released
Frank-Starling Law, greater preload
Activity of sympathetic nervous system is greater
SV is higher
30
What is Starlings law
```
During exercise:
Greater venous return
Greater diastolic filling
Cardiac muscle is stretched further
Resulting in a more powerful contraction
Increasing the ejection fraction
```
31
What is the vascular shunt
The redistribution of Q during exercise
32
How blood pressure is effected during exercise
Systolic increases as cardiac output increase, greater blood flow means greater pressure
Diastolic won’t change because that’s during relaxation when the ventricles are filling so it shouldn’t really change much
Therefore, mean arterial pressure undergoes very modest changes because systolic increases, but because of vasodilation there is decreases resistance
Changes are small as systolic and diastolic balance each other out
33
What is inflammation?
A complex and dynamic, physiological tissue response to harmful stimuli e.g., infection, injury and cell damage/death
34
What does inflammation do?
Restrict damage or infection to a localised area
Remove the causative agent and damaged tissue
Allow immune cells and molecules access to the site
Initiated repair of damaged tissue
35
Cardinal signs of inflammation
Redness
Swelling
Pain
Heat
36
What is the innate/non-specific immune response
Do not have memory, inherited, same for everybody, what were born with
Response is rapid
First line of response
Can not recognise a specific virus or bacteria
Most immune cells are phagocytes, just swallow up damaged cells/viruses/bacteria
37
What is the specific/adaptive/acquired immune response
Based on memory and previous exposures
Different person to person dependent upon what they faced in the past
Slower response
Works by antigen recognition
Lymphocytes are the key groups of cells in this system
38
What is the activated function of a neutrophil?
Activation of bactericidal mechanisms
39
What is the activated function of macrophages
Antigen presentation
40
What are cytokines and chemokines and where are they important?
They are proteins that act as chemical messengers to tell the body something isn’t right
They are the first thing to identify something is wrong
41
So that inflammation doesn’t go over the top, what is used to make sure it doesn’t go over the top?
Anti-inflammattory cytokines
42
What do cytokines/chemokines activate?
Mast cells
43
What do mast cells do?
Activate a number of chemical mediators that orchestrate the inflammatory response
44
What happens after mast cells signal for more chemical mediators?
Cell walls widen and blood flow increases
45
What happens after the blood vessel vasodilates?
The cell walls become more permeable and fluid leaks into the damaged area
This is called Exudation
46
What happens after the cell wall becomes more permeable and fluid leaks into the damaged area
White blood cells (particularly the neutrophils) adhere too and roll along the cell walls
This is called margination
47
What happens after margination
White blood cells then emigrate through the cell wall to the damaged area to limit damage from the harmful stimuli
This is called emigration
48
The acquired system can be split into two different parts, what are they?
Humoral immune response
Cell-mediated immune response
49
What is the difference between the humoral immune response and the cell mediated immune response within the acquired system?
The humoral response works via antigen recognition
50
Which white blood cells are the ones that actually recognise the antigens? And bind to it
B-cells
51
What happens when a B-cell recognised an antigen?
It replicates itself
52
What can happen to B-cells after they replicate after they recognise an antigen?
Some become effector cells - basically means they destroy something
Some become memory cells (stay in body and remember future pathogens
53
What does the cell mediated response involve?
T-cells
54
Which immune response is the last line of defence when all others have failed?
The cell mediated response within the acquired response
55
How does the cell mediated response work?
Macrophages engulf pathogens then show the antigens on their surface
T cells then recognise these on the edge of the surface
The T cells then react based on what their function is
56
What are the different types of T cells?
Killer T cells - directly destroy antigens
Helper T cells - stimulate or ask for help to get more killer T cells
Suppressor T cells - suppress killer T cells if they get a bit above their station
Memory T cells - may keep in case in the future the antigen comes back
57
Does exercise initiate an inflammatory response?
Yes
58
What is exercise induce muscle damage (EIMD)?
Small micro tears in the muscle that increase muscle pain and reduce muscle function
59
How do neutrophils effect exercise induced muscle damage
Neutrophils come and remove debris of damaged cells after exercise
60
What can prolonged strenuous exercise actually cause in terms of the immune response lecture
Risk or infection (evidence is not consistent though)
61
Exercise causes an increase in neutrophils but also causes a decrease in what?
Lymphocytes
62
What is acute/classic inflammation?
Infection, injury, cell death that is resolved within a few days or weeks depending on the nature of the infection
63
What is chronic inflammation?
Where the inflammatory response is unresolved, often caused by a sedentary life, stress, obesity, disease progression
64
Look at video for revision
Slide 43 on the immunity lecture and also the questions
65
How many energy systems are there?
3
66
What are the 3 energy systems?
ATP/PC system
Glycolytic system
Aerobic system
67
Learn energy systems from book
Page 34 in PE textbook
68
Why do we wait until the last minute to measure VO2 max?
So that we know the VO2 we’re measuring reflects the demands of the exercise
69
What is Ficks Equation?
VO2 max = cardiac output x a-vO2 difference
70
Definition of VO2 max
The maximal amount of oxygen that can be inspired, transported and utilised per minute of exhaustive exercise
71
What is the A-VO2 difference?
The difference in the concentration of oxygen in blood leaving the heart compared to blood returning to the heart
72
What limits VO2 max?
Cardiac output
Pulmonary diffusing capacity
O2 carrying capacity
Skeletal muscles ability to extract O2
Altitude
73
Ways to identify VO2 max
Direct gas analysis
74
What are the two types of VO2 max tests?
Maximal
Sub-maximal
75
What sort of predictive VO2 max tests are there?
Walking tests
Endurance runs
Sub-max cycling
Step-tests
76
How does a predictive VO2 max test work?
Estimates peak CRF
77
Who is predictive VO2 max tests useful for?
Elderly, injured, sedentary
78
Are predictive VO2 max tests completely accurate?
No
79
What are the factors affecting VO2 max?
Sex
Age
Body composition
Previous training
80
What is the CNS made up of?
The brain and the spinal cord
81
What is the peripheral nervous system made up of?
Nerves and ganglia
82
Within the peripheral nervous system what is there?
Somatic nervous system
And
Autonomic nervous system
83
Within the autonomic nervous system what is there?
Sympathetic nervous system
And
Parasympathetic nervous system
84
What does the somatic nervous system do?
Controls skeletal muscles
85
What does the autonomic nervous system do?
Regulates glands, blood vessel and internal organs
86
How does the somatic system work
One motor neurone sends a signal to a single effector tissue
87
How does the autonomic nervous system work?
Two neurone send a signal to many effector tissues
88
What is a motor unit?
The motor neuron and the muscle fibres controlled by that motor neuron
89
What is the neurotransmitter that crosses the synapse?
Acetylcholine (Ach)
90
What does the sodium/potassium pump do?
Restores the stable environment that the muscle cell was originally in before the action potential passed through
91
How does the sodium/potassium pump work?
Up to three sodium ions at once bind to the pump and it then moves the sodium from an area of high concentration in the cell, to an area of low concentration outside the cell
92
When a neurosignal passes through a muscle cell, what happens to the resting membrane potential (which is usually -70mV)
It becomes more positive
93
When does an action potential occur?
When a stimulus of sufficient strength depolarises the cell
94
What is repolarisation in the muscle cell
Return muscle cell to resting membrane potential
95
What is all or none law
The idea that either all of the action potential crosses the synapse, or none does
96
Watch excitation - contraction coupling video
Lecture 7 - recap
Hard stuff this
97
Describe the reflex arc
Sensory neuron receives input from peripheral receptors
This signal goes to the spine
Then the relay neuron sends it to the motor neuron, this then sends it to the motor neuron, this then carries the action potential to the effector (muscle fibre)
98
What does a nerve conduction velocity test assess?
Nerve damage, dysfunction and speed at which the nerve impulse is transmitted
99
What is a normal nerve conduction velocity (NCV)?
Everyone is different but usually it falls between 80-120 m/s
100
What is the back of the brain responsible for?
Perception
101
What is the top of the brain responsible for?
Movement
102
What is the front of the brain responsible for
Deep thinking
103
What is cryotherapy
Applying ice or cold to an injury or after exercise for therapeutic effect, such as reducing swelling
104
What are the functions of the spinal cord?
Sensory and motor innervation
Two-way conduction pathway
Major center for reflexes
105
Shape of grey matter?
Almost H shaped and surrounds the cavity
106
Where is white matter
Surrounds the grey matter
107
What are two types of nerve pathway
Lecture 7 - nerve function
Ascending fibers - going from body to the brain
Descending fibers - going from brain to spinal cord
108
What is the order of the inflammatory immune response?
Damaged cells release cytokines/chemokines
Activating mast cells - activates a number of chemical mediators that orchestrate the inflammatory response
Cell walls widen, blood flow increases
Exudation
Margination
Emigration
109
What do phagocytes do?
Engulf the pathogen
110
At resting membrane potential what is the balance of sodium inside and outside the cell?
```
Outside = 150mM
Inside = 15mM
```
111
At resting membrane potential what is the balance of potassium inside and outside the cell?
```
Outside = 5mM
Inside = 150mM
```
