Lectures 1-12 Dr Pearce Flashcards
1
Q
What is biology the study of?
A
Life and the living systems
2
Q
What are living organisms and how do we identify a living organism?
A
Living organisms are things are made up of cells, which use energy, respond to stimuli, grow and reproduce, and maintain homeostasis. We can use MRS GREN to help us identify a living organism
3
Q
What is MRS GREN and what does it stand for?
A
MRS GREN is an acronym often used to help remember all the necessary features of living organisms. Its stands for Movement, Respiration, Sensitivity, growth, Reproduction, Excretion and Nutrition
4
Q
If an answer isn’t clear in an exam what do you do?
A
Pick a side and justify why you chose your answer in depth.
5
Q
Yes or No. There is never a correlation between structure and function in biology
A
NO, there is often a correlation between structure and function in biology.
6
Q
How does biology or biochemistry make the world a better place? (2018 EXAM Q)
A
Biochemistry makes significant contributions to the fields of cell biology, physiology, immunology, microbiology, pharmacology, and toxicology, as well as the fields of inflammation, cell injury, and cancer.
7
Q
What are two or more processes in biology that require a transfer of energy?
A
ATP, photosynthesis and respiration
8
Q
What is discovery science?
A
Discovery science is a scientific methodology which emphasizes the analysis of large volumes of experimental data with the goal of finding new patterns or correlations
9
Q
What is hypothesis science?
A
Hypothesis science is forming an idea or explanation that you then test through study and experimentation.
10
Q
What is the difference between discovery and hypothesis science?
A
Discovery science is the analysing of data to find new patterns (answer questions) although hypothesis science is using your own idea and forming your own experiment to find your own data in which may help to answer questions.
11
Q
When studying for biochemistry do we need to know the specific names of the drugs we are studying for revision?
A
Yes as this will help you get better grades during your exams.
12
Q
What will help you get better grades during biochemistry exams?
A
Using lots of scientific detail and knowledge, proving you listened and remember the lecture content.
13
Q
Science cant:
A
Tell right from wrong, make aesthetic judgement (judgement based on feeling), tell you how to use your knowledge, and judge on supernatural phenomena.
14
Q
What are the four elements that make up most of human body weight and what is the percentage that they make up?
A
C (Carbon), N (Nitrogen), H (Hydrogen), and O (Oxygen) and these elements make up 97% of the human body’s weight.
15
Q
What elements make up the rest of the human body weight (around 3-4%)?
A
Ca (Calcium), P (Phosphorus), K (Potassium), S (Sulfur), Na (Sodium), Cl (Chlorine), Mg (Magnesium).
16
Q
What is the goal of the orbitals of elements?
A
To form a full orbital shell.
17
Q
How many electrons does Hydrogen need to fill its Orbital shell?
A
Only 1 (Hydrogen is the only element that can have a full orbital shell with only 2 valence electrons)
18
Q
How many electrons does Oxygen need to fill its Orbital shell?
A
Two electrons as it already has 6 electrons in its orbital shells
19
Q
How many electrons does Nitrogen need to fill its orbital shell?
A
It needs 3 electrons as it only has 5 current electrons in its orbital shells
20
Q
How many electrons does Carbon need to fill its orbital shell?
A
It needs 4 electrons as it already has 4 electrons in its orbital shells.
21
Q
What are covalent bonds?
A
A chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms
22
Q
What is polarity?
A
Polarity is a separation of electric charge leading to a molecule or its chemical groups having an electric dipole moment, with a negatively charged end and a positively charged end.
23
Q
When is a molecule polar?
A
When it has a separation of electric charge with no symmetry in its shape.
24
Q
When is a molecule non-polar?
A
When there is no separation of electric charge in the molecule.
25
True or false? Non-polar and polar molecules do similar things in the human body?
False they work very differently within the human body.
26
What is a base?
A proton acceptor
27
What is an acid?
A proton donor
28
What are important chemical groups in biology?
The hydroxyl group (Alcohol), The carbonyl group (Ketone, Aldehyde), The carboxyl group (Carboxylic acid or organic acid), Amino group (Amine), Sulfhydryl group (Thiol), Phosphate group (Organic Phosphate), Methyl group (Methylated compounds).
29
What is a cation?
A positively charged Ion.
30
What is an anion?
A negatively charged Ion.
31
True or False? Positive charges are attracted for negative charges.
True.
32
True or False? The important bonds in biology tend to be strong bonds.
False, There are many important bonds in biology which are weak bonds for example Van Der Waals interactions from uneven distributions.
33
What is the most important bond in biology as it most likely the reason behind everything in the biochemistry course?
Hydrogen bonds
34
What are hydrogen bonds?
Hydrogen bonds are bonds which occur when a hydrogen is attracted to an electronegative atom although this hydrogen has to be attached to another electronegative atom such as a nitrogen, fluoride, or oxygen atom.
35
What odd properties does hydrogen bonding give water?
1. Cohesion, aka can stick to each other, for example water droplets
2. Adhesion, aka can stick to something else, for example sticking to plants
3. Is the only liquid that floats on other liquid when in solid formation due to the lattice formed by the hydrogen bonds.
36
True or False? Water cannot hold energy.
False. Water can hold lots of energy.
37
True or False? Water forms a lattice and sometimes multiple.
True.
38
What shape does water's molecules typically form?
A lattice structure, that is why small bugs are able to walk on water.
39
What is an ionic bond?
Ionic bonding is a type of chemical bonding that involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions (Cations and Anions).
40
What is a covalent bond?
The sharing of electrons between atoms. This sharing may be even or one atom may hog the electrons.
41
How many other water molecules can water molecules interact with?
4
42
What properties does temperature change in molecules?
It changes/represents the average kinetic energy of molecules. Therefore it changes the rate at which chemical reactions occur.
43
Why does water have such a high heat capacity?
Because water has hydrogen bonding
44
What is homeostasis?
In biology, homeostasis is the state of steady internal, physical, and chemical conditions maintained by living systems
45
What is the solution?
A solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances
46
What is the Solvent?
A solvent is the component of a solution that is present in the greatest amount. It is the substance in which the solute is dissolved. Usually, a solvent is a liquid.
47
What is the Solute?
A solute is defined as the substance that is dissolved in a solution.
48
What makes water a good solvent?
Water molecules are small and the molecules are very polar.
49
What makes water a good solvent in the human body since we are made up of around 80% of water?
Since water molecules are small and very polar the molecules can interact with many other cells and things which makes it much easier for our cells to move around our body rather than if the cells had to move through solids.
50
What are some examples of water being a good solvent with other molecules?
NaCl (Salt) has a very very high melting point although when mixed in solution with H2O dissolves easily. Also other large molecules or proteins can easily dissolve in H2O although they need to have ionic or polar regions on their surface.
51
What is diffusion?
Diffusion is the net movement of anything from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Diffusion is driven by a gradient in concentration. Nature hates gradients.
52
What is osmosis?
A process by which molecules of a solvent tend to pass through a semipermeable membrane from a less concentrated solution into a more concentrated one.
53
What is a semipermeable membrane?
A semipermeable membrane is a membrane that only allows certain types of particles to move through it under certain conditions such as when in solution.
54
What does hypertonic mean?
In a hypertonic solution the total molar concentration of all dissolved solute particles is more than that of another solution or more than that of a cell.
55
What does isotonic mean
Denoting or relating to a solution having the same osmotic pressure as some other solution, especially one in a cell or a body fluid.
56
What does hypotonic mean?
In a hypotonic solution the total molar concentration of all dissolved solute particles is less than that of another solution or less than that of a cell.
57
What is osmotic pressure?
The pressure needed to stop the osmotic flow is the osmotic pressure
58
What are the four classes of biomolecules that all living things are made up of?
Carbohydrates, Lipids, Nucleic Acids, and Proteins.
59
What are carbohydrates?
A carbohydrate is a biomolecule consisting of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. When you eat carbs, your body breaks them down into simple sugars, which are absorbed into the bloodstream. As the sugar level rises in your body, the pancreas releases a hormone called insulin. Insulin is needed to move sugar from the blood into the cells, where the sugar can be used as an energy source
60
What are Lipids?
In biology and biochemistry, a lipid is a biomolecule that is soluble in nonpolar solvents. The functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes. Although the term "lipid" is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides.
61
What are nucleic acids?
Nucleic acid is an important class of macromolecules found in all cells and viruses. The functions of nucleic acids have to do with the storage and expression of genetic information. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) encodes the information the cell needs to make proteins. A related type of nucleic acid, called ribonucleic acid (RNA), comes in different molecular forms that participate in protein synthesis.
62
What are proteins?
Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Protein has many roles in your body. It helps repair and build your body's tissues, allows metabolic reactions to take place and coordinates bodily functions. In addition to providing your body with a structural framework, proteins also maintain proper pH and fluid balance
63
What is a hydrolysis reaction in polymers?
Hydrolysis is a chemical process in which a molecule of water is added to a substance. Hydrolysis reactions use water to break down polymers into monomers therefore Hydrolysis reactions break bonds and release energy.
64
What is a dehydration (synthesis) reaction in polymers?
The Dehydration reaction is polymers in the opposite to hydrolysis therefore it is the chemical process in which the reacting molecule or ion loses a water molecule when synthesizing a polymer from monomers. These reactions therefore form bonds and absorb energy.
65
True or False? Creating polymers helps to create order and complexity.
True
66
If you want to create order what is required?
Energy to oppose the second law of thermodynamics.
67
What is the second law of thermodynamics?
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the state of entropy of the entire universe, as an isolated system, will always increase over time. The second law also states that the changes in the entropy in the universe can never be negative. (CLOSED SYSTEM)
68
What compound can help water manage its water potential and how?
Polymers (need to edit question)
69
How can different molecules recognise each other?
Each of your cells has a set of 'identity tags' on its surface, which mark it out as part of your body and no one else's. Some are only found on cells from the same tissue or organ. These identity tag molecules are called antigens. Your set of antigens is unique, unless you have an identical twin. For example your tongue has food receptors (Identity tags) which allow the tongue to taste food molecules and identify them.
70
True or False? Molecules with similar shapes will have different biological effects.
False, molecules with similar shapes should have similar biological effects.
71
What are amino acids?
Amino acids are organic compounds that contain amine and carboxyl functional groups, along with a side chain specific to each amino acid. they often referred to as the building blocks of proteins, are compounds that play many critical roles in your body. They're needed for vital processes like the building of proteins and synthesis of hormones and neurotransmitters
72
What are lipids?
A lipid is a biomolecule that is soluble in nonpolar solvents. The functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes. Although the term "lipid" is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides
73
What does hydrophobic mean?
Hydrophobic literally means “the fear of water”. Hydrophobic molecules and surfaces repel water. Hydrophobic liquids, such as oil, will separate from water. Hydrophobic molecules are usually nonpolar, meaning the atoms that make the molecule do not produce a static electric field.
74
What do we use lipids for?
The functions of lipids include storing energy (fat) in adipose tissues, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes.
75
What is adipose tissue?
Adipose tissue has a main role to store energy in the form of fat, although it also cushions and insulates the body. It is primarily located beneath the skin, but is also found around internal organs.
76
What are some Dietary fats?
Palmitic, Stearic, Oleic, Linolenic, Docosahexaenoic.
77
What are saturated fats?
A saturated fat is a type of fat in which the fatty acid chains have all or predominantly single bonds.
78
What are unsaturated fats?
An unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid chain
79
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?
Unsaturated fats have at least one double bond although saturated fats have all or usually all single bonds.
80
What state are saturated fats at room temperature?
Solid
81
What kind of fats usually come from animal based produce and why?
Saturated fats. As they are solid at room temperature.
82
What state are unsaturated fats at room temperature?
Liquid
83
What kind of fats usually come from plant based produce and why?
Unsaturated fats (Such as olive oil) as they are liquid at room temperature.
84
True or False? Plants that live in a warm environment will produce saturated fats.
True
85
True or False? Animals that live in a cold environment will produce saturated fats.
False, The will produce unsaturated fats.
86
What are some examples of saturated fats?
Dairy, meat, palm & coconut oil.
87
What are trans fats?
Trans fat, also called trans-unsaturated fatty acids or trans fatty acids, is a type of unsaturated fat that occurs in small amounts in meat and milk fat. It is used often in deep frying or processed foods.
88
What are Triglycerides?
Triglycerides are a type of fat (lipid) found in your blood. When you eat, your body converts any calories it doesn't need to use right away into triglycerides. The triglycerides are stored in your fat cells. Later, hormones release triglycerides for energy between meals. They are made up of glycerol and 3 fatty acids.
89
What are Omega fatty acids?
Omega fatty acids are essential fatty acids,
| some common sources are fish and flaxseed oil.
90
What are most fats stored as?
Triglycerides
91
What are triglycerides made up of?
One unit of Glycerol and 3 fatty acids.
92
Why are lipids important in cell membranes?
Arguably the most important function lipids perform is as the building blocks of cellular membranes. Cell membranes are made from a double layer of lipids known as ‘phospholipids’. The plasma membrane around a cell provides a barrier that separates the contents of a cell from the external world. It is responsible for controlling what substances enter and leave a cell.
93
What are 2 cool functions of lipids?
Lipids acting as a barrier for cells and acting as signalling molecules.
94
True or False? Lipids can be a form of vitamins.
True, Lipids act as a carrier of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and therefore assist with the digestion, absorption and transport of the fat-soluble vitamins
95
What is the structure of carbohydrates?
The general empirical structure for carbohydrates is (CH2O)n
96
What atoms are in carbohydrates?
CHO. Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
97
What does hydrophilic mean?
having a tendency to mix with, dissolve in, or be wetted by water.
98
What does Hydrophobic mean?
tending to repel or fail to mix with water.
99
What is the difference between hydrophilic and hydrophobic?
If a substance is hydrophobic is tends not to mix with water but if it is Hydrophilic it will mix with water.
100
What is the difference between complex and simple carbohydrates?
Complex carbohydrates contain longer chains of sugar molecules than simple carbohydrates. ... As complex carbohydrates have longer chains, they take longer to break down and provide more lasting energy in the body than simple carbohydrates
101
What are Disaccharides?
A disaccharide is the sugar formed when two monosaccharides are joined by glycosidic linkage
102
What is a Trisaccharide?
Carbohydrates with three monomers or three monosaccharides are called trisaccharides. These monosaccharides are joined by a glycosidic linkage.
103
Are hydrogen bonds strong or weak?
They are strong intermolecular forces
104
True or False? More Hydrogen bonds = A molecule that is easier to break
False. Less hydrogen bonds = A molecule that is easier to break
105
What are some chemical characteristics that can vary between different sugars?
1. Carbon-Carbon length, 2. Whether it is linear or ring, 3. Whether it is a reducing sugar or not
106
What are Van der waals interactions?
van der Waals interactions. (noun) A weak force of attraction between electrically neutral molecules that collide with or pass very close to each other. The van der Waals force is caused by temporary attractions between electron-rich regions of one molecule and electron-poor regions of another.
107
True or False? Long chains are good for osmotic pressure?
True
108
What is cellulose?
Cellulose is a structural polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell wall of green plants, many forms of algae and the oomycetes.
109
What are beta 1,4-glycosidic bonds?
a β-glycosidic bond which occurs when the two carbons have different stereochemistry.
110
What is stereochemistry?
The branch of chemistry concerned with the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms and molecules and the effect of this on chemical reactions.
111
Why cant the human body break down cellulose?
Because the human body lacks the appropriate enzymes to be able to break its beta bonds down.
112
How are carbohydrates used in molecular recognition?
Our cells use carbohydrates attached to proteins and lipids to recognise each-other.
113
Why is molecular recognition important?
So that our body can recognise harmful or helpful foreign substances
114
What are proteins?
Proteins are large, complex molecules that play many critical roles in the body. They are made up of a chain of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds.
115
How many different types of amino acids are there?
20
116
What is in the structure of a protein?
An Amino group, A random side group, An acid group, and a carbon.
117
What does Hydrophilic mean?
having a tendency to mix with, dissolve in, or be wetted by water.
118
What are peptide bonds?
A peptide bond is a chemical bond formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of the other molecule, releasing a molecule of water (H2O). This is a dehydration synthesis reaction (also known as a condensation reaction), and usually occurs between amino acids.
119
What are Alpha Helices (The alpha helix)?
The alpha helix is a common motif in the secondary structure of proteins and is a right hand-helix conformation in which every backbone N−H group hydrogen bonds to the backbone C=O group of the amino acid located three or four residues earlier along the protein sequence.
120
What are beta sheets?
The β-sheet is a common motif of regular secondary structure in proteins. Beta sheets consist of beta strands connected laterally by at least two or three backbone hydrogen bonds, forming a generally twisted, pleated sheet.
121
What is the difference between the alpha helix and beta sheets?
In protein structure the alpha helices make a coil like shape and the beta sheets have more of a continuous mountain like shape
122
What is the difference between parallel and antiparallel beta sheets?
In parallel beta-sheets the strands all run in one direction, whereas in antiparallel sheets they all run in opposite directions. In mixed sheets some strands are parallel and others are antiparallel.
123
What is meant by the primary structure of a protein?
By definition, the primary structure of a protein is the linear sequence of amino acids. Together, this linear sequence is referred to as a polypeptide chain. The amino acids in the primary structure are held together by covalent bonds, which are made during the process of protein synthesis (translation)
124
What is meant by the secondary structure of a protein?
Secondary structure describes regions where the polypeptide is folded into localised shapes. There are two types of secondary structure (alpha helix and Beta pleated sheet).
125
What is meant by the tertiary structure of a protein?
The three-dimensional structure of a protein or nucleic acid. Amino acids form secondary structures such as alpha helices, beta sheets, and random coils, which in turn fold on themselves to form the tertiary structure of the protein.
126
What is meant by the quaternary structure of a protein?
By definition, quaternary structure is the arrangement of more than one protein molecule in a multi-subunit complex.
127
True or False? The R groups are always positioned inside the protein structure so that they cant interact with water?
False , The R groups always stick out as they have charge and can interact with water.
128
What is the Disulfide Bridge?
In chemistry, a disulfide bridge refers to a functional group with the structure R−S−S−R′. The linkage is also called an SS-bond or sometimes a disulfide and is usually derived by the coupling of two thiol groups. In biology, disulfide bridges formed between thiol groups in two cysteine residues are an important component of the secondary and tertiary structure of proteins
129
What is Denaturation?
The unfolding of proteins
130
What is Renaturation?
The inverse process of denaturation, in which folding of proteins occurs after denaturation.
131
Which is harder to preform: Denaturation or Renaturation?
Renaturation
132
What are Carbohydrates good at and bad at ?
They are good for energy but bad for "Doing things"
133
Are lipids or carbohydrates a better source of energy?
Generally Lipids although this is usually as long term energy sources, carbohydrates are better as short term energy sources.
134
What are enzymes?
Enzymes are biological molecules (typically proteins) that significantly speed up the rate of virtually all of the chemical reactions that take place within cells. They are substrate specific (meaning that each enzyme only speeds up a specific reaction).
135
What is the lock & key model?
The lock and key model assumes that the active site of the enzyme and the substrate are equal shaped. It supposes that the substrate fits perfectly into the active site of the enzyme. (aka perfect match)
136
True or False? Proteins function through specific recognition and binding of a target molecule.
True.
137
What is Collagen?
Collagen is protein molecules made up of amino acids. It provides structural support to the extracellular space of connective tissues. Due to its rigidity and resistance to stretching, it is the perfect matrix for skin, tendons, bones, and ligaments.
138
What is Keratin?
Keratin is an important protein in the epidermis. Keratin has two main functions: to stick cells to each other and to form a protective layer on the outside of the skin.
139
What is the epidermis?
The upper or outer layer of the two main layers of cells that make up the skin
140
What is Actin and what is it common in?
Actin is a highly abundant intracellular protein present in all eukaryotic cells and has a pivotal role in muscle contraction as well as in cell movements. Actin also has an essential function in maintaining and controlling cell shape and architecture.
141
What are motor proteins?
Motor proteins are molecular motors that use ATP hydrolysis to move along cytoskeletal filaments within the cell. They fulfil many functions within biological systems, including controlling the sliding of filaments in muscle contraction and mediating intracellular transport along biopolymer filament tracks.
142
What is Myosin?
Myosin is a special protein (motor protein) that converts adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule that cells use in order to live and work, into mechanical energy (energy for work).
143
What is Helicase?
Helicases are molecular machines (motor proteins) that utilize energy derived from ATP hydrolysis to move along nucleic acids and to separate base-paired nucleotides. (aka open the DNA strands for translation).
144
What is Hemoglobin?
Hemoglobin is the oxygen-transporting protein of red blood cells and is a globular protein with a quaternary structure. Hemoglobin consists of four polypeptide subunits; 2 alpha chains and two beta chains. Hemoglobin transports oxygen in the blood from the lungs to the rest of the body.
145
What is insulin?
Insulin is a hormone (protein) released by pancreatic beta cells in response to elevated levels of nutrients in the blood. Insulin causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat tissue to take glucose from the blood, promoting the storage of these nutrients as glycogen in the liver and muscle and stop using fat as an energy source.
146
What are antibodies?
An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a large Y-shaped protein produced by B- cells and used by the immune system to identify and neutralize foreign objects such as bacteria and viruses
147
What are Nucleic acids?
Nucleic acid is an important class of macromolecules found in all cells and viruses. The functions of nucleic acids have to do with the storage and expression of genetic information.
148
What is an easy way to think about the difference between DNA and proteins.
DNA is the recipe book and the protein is the meal.
149
Which is bigger DNA or proteins?
DNA
150
What are the types of nucleotide bases?
ATCG
151
How does Hydrogen bonding occur in DNA?
The complementary base pairs of guanine with cytosine and adenine with thymine connect to one another using hydrogen bonds. These hydrogen bonds between complementary nucleotides are what keeps the two strands of a DNA helix together.
152
What do we need energy for?
Order in the universe, Movement (Kinetic), and Heat
153
What are metabolic pathways?
In biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a linked series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell.
154
What is ATP?
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) captures chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it to fuel other cellular processes.
155
What is ADP?
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is an important organic compound in metabolism and is essential to the flow of energy in living cells. It is viewed as a second favourite to ATP
156
What is the difference between ATP and ADP
ATP is a molecule with a lot of chemical energy. ATP stands for Adenosine Tri Phosphate, ADP is ATP after the loss of its 3rd phosphate. A lot of energy is lost during ATP-ADP and that is why ATP has higher energy storage than ADP.
157
In the human body what is energy most likely to be stored as?
Stored as fat, a type of lipid.
158
Why is the human body more likely to use lipids for energy storage rather than carbohydrates and proteins?
Lipid molecules contain more energy per gram than carbohydrates (about twice as much) Carbohydrates are more readily digested than lipids and release their energy more rapidly. Also lipids have less effect on osmotic pressure within a cell than complex carbohydrates.
159
What are some of the negatives of using Lipids as an energy source?
More O2 is required to break the bonds of lipids to use for energy therefore lipids have a slower energy release (No sudden burst of energy).
160
Why do plants use starch and we use glycogen for energy?
Glycogen is more branched than starch and therefore has more available ends ready to be broken down for energy (Sudden burst) and although glycogen is less stable this form of energy is preferable to animals. Plants to not require sudden bursts of energy and therefore prefer starch which is a more stable form of energy.
