Lecture viii & ix - Responses to Climate Change (Mitigate & Adapt) Flashcards
Define adaptation measures and mitigation measures
- Adaptation
- strategies to cope w CC impacts, reduce vulnerability by make adjustmt
- local/ regional scale
- immediate results - Mitigation
- strategies aimed address root cause of problem (by reduce ghg emis n, enhance ghg sink strength)
- global
- longer time to see results
Elaborate on adaptation approaches
- adaptation or vulnerability reduct n
including but not confined to: - agri
- infra
- natural rcs
- financial
Explain agricultural adaptation
- IPCC reported increase in annual precipita n (1900 to 2005) in regions eg Eastern North, South America
and
decrease (in same period) in areas eg S. Africa, S. Asia
(in Africa, edi hv water scarcity, worsen w CC)
=> drought/flood resistant crops
- withstand more frequent, longer droughts so more yield
(which forced eg farmers in Puebla, Mexico give up growing corn, other cereals in favour of alternatives eg pistachio nut, cactus needing less water)
and more potential areas to cultivate crops
eg
Thailand use new genetic modify variety rice for deep50cm waters fr wet season
In Yolo County, California, farmers shift towards hot season species of crops and in winter, cool season crops like lettuce, broccoli
However, may affect environ qlty, habitat, bio
Not all countries have enough financial resources to adopt new modified crops, and to educate local farmers to incorporate new crops
Briefly explain infrastructural adaptation
- hard & soft engineering to cope w flood (does not mitigate CC)
- Hard engineering
- structural changes eg modify river to prevent discharge overflow over river bank
eg straighten river channel (river channelisat n), build levees to stem flow water, build dams regulate amt water flow downstream - Soft engineering
- non-structural/behavioural mitigat n (landuse plan, flood zoning, regulat n, etc.)
=> ability for govt to respond to flood events vv impt as affect impact of flood, esp secondary impact eg manage spread diseases, starvat n
ie. cope w AFTER effects of flooding, etc
Explain channelisation as hard engineering strategy to flooding
- method of river engineering, widen/deepen river to increase capacity for flow volume
- during flooding, water can move efficient along river, so less damage to banks
eg
River Rouge in Dearborn, Michigan USA, the US Army Corps of Engineers channelised river as flood control project,
River Thames, London, UK
Seine River, Paris, France
Explain levees as hard engineering strategy to flooding
- artificial embankments built parallel along rivers to increase bankful discharge capacity of river (prevent overflow of river discharge)
eg
reinforced levee in Lower Ninth Ward, in New Orleans 2015
Eg
In the Maldives government embarked on extensive land reclamation project since 1997 to build more islands or to enlarge island size to prevent erosion flooding also build sea walls with concrete tetrapod to protect against rising sea levels and planting mangroves as coastal defense - HOWEVER, levee failure can occur (levee breach - part of levee break away, leave large opening for water to flood - , overtopping)
eg
2005, levees along Mississippi river breached in New Orleans USA due to structural problem in levee when Hurricane Katrina hit city
Such measures need to be constantly maintained to ensure structural integrity cause long-term cost. Poor countries may not afford this. Not long-term sustainable solution.
Deliberate and purpose of planning also needed in terms of governance. There must be necessary, expertise and knowledge to plan and build, and maintain infrastructure.
Eg Netherlands spend only .5% of GDP per annum to create additional protection from climate change while small island states such as the Maldives could require 1/3 of GDP to afford such measures for countries may then have to rely on richer countries for aid or relief
Explain building dams as hard engineering strategy to flooding
- huge hydraulic structures built across rivers
- regulate/control level of discharge in river channel to prevent flood
- MOST effective means of mitigate flood effect as effectively control discharge in river
–> multi-functional: - turbines can b used generate hydro-electricity
- allow steady release of water thruout yr, enable irrigat n esp during dry season
- act as flood control by reduce water lvl
- source of tourism/navigat n (river tours, rock climbing)
eg
arch dam Luzzone in Ticino Switzerland feature world’s highest climbing wall,
scenic Shuibuya Dam is tallest concrete-face rock-fill embankment in world, on Qingjiang River in Badong County, China
HOWEVER
- costly build, require const maintenance (entail high cost)
Eg three gorges dam cost 37 billion USD (just to build)— not all LDC can afford this
- susceptible to structural failure
eg Kerala floods, poor dam mgmt blamed in South India
- create reservoir cause displacemt pop n
eg Three Gorges Dam, Yangtze River enable agri, industrial activities occur all-year, its construct n displaced 1.3 million ppl
- trap sedimt upstream of dam, water released downstream of dam contain less sedimt, nutrient block flow nutrients to lower course of river, affect depositional processes & agri practices relying on this replenishmt
- clearwater eros n downstream dams (affect biodiversity)
eg Yangtze, more pollut n fr human dvlopmt cause loss of biodiversity
- produce ghg by flood areas, increase rate decomposit n in areas behind dam where reservoir of waters tend flood land
- econ impact
Eg
Mun River in Thailand, Mun dam was built for Hydro power, but affected local livelihood due to loss of fisheries and need to be relocated. Pak Mun dam affected 25,000 villagers and it was met with many protest after it was built.
Explain soft engineering strategies to flooding
- Landuse plan, zone
- authority identify flood prone area, plan for low impact dvlopmt of land use
=> restrict n placed to prevent building, car park, CBDs b constructed on flood plains; oni playing fields, parks, etc
- HOWEVER, not viable for land-scarce cities that need prioritise - afforestat n, reforestat n on flood plains
- grow, replant trees
- vegetat n hold, anchor soil tgt, prevent soil fr easy eros n
- vegetat n intercept rainfall, slow down water flow into river
eg Chinese govt spent USD $2 billion reforest Yangtze River area
- HOWEVER, take >= 20 yr for seedling grow into trees & require large land space - Response (post-flood measure)
public relief/disaster aid/emergency action by indiv, community, national/international organisat n
- access to food, clean water
- hygiene (prevent death fr contaminated water, spread disease)
- amenities eg proper shelter etc
- medical aid (physical, psychological treatment)
- insurance to recover fr econ costs involved
Explain resource adaptation
- extreme weather (droughts, dry, etc.) affect supply of fresh water (clean potable)
=> reduced water security, so new tech needed to solve
eg
SG one of 8 country projected to b most vulnerable to water supply disrupt n by 2040,
SG currently hv 4 major water tap, - imported water fr Johor expire in 2061 (now meet half of daily demand)
=> need expand other taps eg local catchmt, NEWater, desalinat n - local catchmt: rainwater stored in 17 reservoir, protected fr pollut n w good infra, environ control, land use policy
- NEWater: treat, recycle used water to clean, high-grade reclaimed water (most sustainable, cost-effective process). W water demand projected double by 2060, recycle water is advantageous to increase water supply
This supply up to 40% of Singapore’s current water needs - Desalinat n: most energy-intensive, expensive produce treated seawater (current tech need quadruple energy to produce sufficent water compared to now) & new tech eg electro-deionisat n, biomimicry need further research, dvlopmt to reduce energy use
However
This requires much installation construction costs of necessary, infrastructure like desalination plants
Much deliberate planning is needed in terms of governance. State planners must not only have financial resources. They must also have necessary, expertise and knowledge to plan build and maintain them.
Explain financial adaptation
- focus on risk-pooling to reduce cost of damage fr CC
- use things like insurance to hedge against costs incurred due to climate-related hazards
To reduce economic impacts or restoration costs
eg
the Climate Corporation monitor weather locally,
if covered weather event occur, the Climate Corporation automatically sends payment to you, with no claims, adjuster or waiting
Increasingly research groups for insurance companies are creating models, allowing to calculate risk from climate change impacts and to price that into the cost of insurance premiums meaning one could be paying higher premiums for insurance
However, one group risk management solutions RMS determined historical averages are no longer applicable to hurricanes in the US, so this would affect the price of property insurance therefore it is more costly
What are some mitigation approaches to climate change
- reduce ghg
- collective international action (eg Kyoto Protocol)
- market-based approach
- use alternative energy sources - increase carbon sink
- afforest n
- reforest n
Explain Kyoto Protocol as collective international action
- Kyoto Protocol: world’s primary international agreement on combat global warm (reduce co2 emis n & other ghg in atmos), bcame international law in 2005, first commitmt period fr 2008 to 2012
- legally bind highly industrialised nation (DCs) to b committed in reduce carbon emis n, encourage dvlopmt of energy efficient tech project (to earn carbon credits)
- encourage financial aid fr DCs to carry out adapt n project in LDCs (help latter cope w CC impacts)
- HOWEVER, partake in agreement is optional, so difficult enforce target, timetable
eg USA (1 of largest ghg emitter) no ratify protocol in Rio 1992 Earth Summit, Canada withdrew fr it in 2012 - China, India, other LDCs exempted fr requiremt of Kyoto Protocol as not main contributor to ghg emis n during industrial n period believed to cause today’s CC
- Loophole in treaty oso allow nations moving polluting industry abroad to claim reduct n in carbon emis n (carbon outsourcing)
eg
UK effectively outsourced ghg emis n when it hv its large quantities of consumer goods (eg TV, phones) produced in China, so China bears responsibility for carbon emis n - not flexible - restrictive, insensitive to geographical, tech diff
Explain Paris Agreement as collective international action
- replaced Kyoto protocol
- aim to strengthen global response to threat of CC by limit increase in global avg temp to well below 2 deg C (aim for below 1.5 deg C relative to pre-industrial lvl)
- each country must determine, plan, regularly report on contribut n it undertake to mitigate global warm by a specific date
- hv ‘bottom up’ structure
- emphasise on consensus-building, allow for voluntary, nationally determined target
- attempt blur divide btw DC & LDCs - focus on shared responsibility
=> specific climate goals r politically encouraged (vs legally bound)
eg
In 2017, Donald Trump US president announce intent n withdraw US fr 2015 Paris agreemt. However, President Biden signed for US to rejoin Paris agreemt on first day in office 2021
Explain market-based approach as mitigation measure
- suggest treaties too inefficient
- carbon pollut n one of primary ‘fuelers’ of CC, cause extreme weather condit n
(econ cost - increased cost of cooling home, failed crop harvest, property damage, social costs - trigger respiratory issue eg asthma, loss of lives, eco costs - loss of biodiversity) - Cap & Trade is climate policy putting price on what companies release into atmos
- trade func create market for companies to buy, sell ghg emis n allowance (usually co2) based on price governed thru supply, demand process in auct n process
- by trading these caps, companies hv stronger incentive save, make money if they can cut lvl enough to trade unused amt to larger organisat n
eg
California’s Cap-and-Trade programme - supported by Paris Climate agreement
- state regulator set limit on amt ghg, each factory/pwr plant must obtain fixed allowance, companies more energy efficient can have excess allowance they can sell, companies can buy and sell
- HOWEVER, experts more worried that it allow California’s biggest polluter conduct biz as usual, even increase emis n
- analysis show carbon emis n fr California oil, gas industry rose 3.5% since cap and trade began
- petroleum refineries consistently largest polluter in state
- emis n fr vehicle (using fuel processed in refineries) oso rising
=> state’s biggest oil, gas companies hv polluted more since cap and trade programme started
Explain use of alternative energy sources as mitigation measure
eg hydro, wind, solar pwr (clean energy sources not pollute air)
HOWEVER,
- costly build, maintain (oni DC can afford)
- need expert knowledge, manpwr to ensure operat n, maintain such plants, resources
- hydropwr require countries w river sources (geographical constraints)
- solar pwr affected by degree of solar energy received (differ thruout day, across diff spatial area) => may not b stable in energy supply
