Lecture 12: Liveable Cities for Women

Question 1

Define Gender Equality

Answer 1

equal rights, responsibilities & opportun of both women & men, girls & boys

Question 2

What are 2 important findings with regards to gender equality?

Answer 2

• richer countries tend hv higher percentage of gender equality
• more equality btw men & women within urban pop n than rural communities

Question 3

What reasons explain the higher percentage of gender equality in urban cities than rural areas?

Answer 3

• more +ve social conditions promoting gender equality in cities
• cities hv more opportun to engage in paid jobs & subjected to fewer socio-cultural restrict n
• women enjoy relatively btr advantage for edu n in urban environ
• women see increase in their empowerment, agency when accumulate more diverse assets in cities & if support structural policies in place

Question 4

Elaborate on creating gender-equal cities

Answer 4

• shows how create space for all voice, need, capacity is necessary toward build liveable city benefitting all society member
• the more built environ designed w women in mind, the more women feel safe, welcome, confident, comfortable using public space, infra –> make city liveable for all (children, aged, men, disabled)

Question 5

What are 5 reasons for importance of gender equality for progress?

Answer 5

1. Increasing global proport n of women live in cities
2. Increased econ growth as city gain larger wkforce 2 increased PP
3. reduct n in income poverty w improvement in dvlopmt outcomes for next gen
4. Urban poor living in cities often neglected by city officials & urban planners
5. efficient cities’ decision-making & increase support for communities

Question 6

What economic issues do women face? Give some examples

Answer 6

• Limited job opportun
  eg in Brazil, politics remain mostly male dominated; according to UN, oni 11% of members of Congress r women; third lowest % in Latin America. Brazil oni hv 1 woman rank of minister
• gender wage gap (lower pay for women)
  eg Sao Paulo, Brazil, struggle as even w higher edu qualificat n, women oni earn abt 78% man’s salary for same work done
• lack flexible work arrangement
• poorer promotional or careers prospects for women
• discrimination among women in cities
  eg
  US Department of Labor reported that marginalised women in US like Black women lost $42.7 billion in wages vs white men in 2023, and Hispanic women lost $53.3 billion in wages. These losses r driven by the fact that Black & Hispanic women r conc disproportionately in jobs paying lower wages than those held by white men on avg
• unequal amt unpaid care work
  eg in 2015 report on gender inequality in India, McKinsey Global Institute found that Indian women perform nearly 10 times unpaid care work as men, thrice global avg
• financial pressures for women

Question 7

What social issues do women face? Give some examples

Answer 7

• unequal access to basic services (hc, edu n)
  eg
  in patriarchal societies (India, Nepal, Pakistan, etc.),
  many city dweller still hold on to deeply entrenched gender-biased views, prefer invest in edu n of male children
  often force girls to drop out of school prematurely when lack $ means
  hinder girls’ academic, prof growth
  lack of affordable childcare fac inhibit women’s econ, social mobility
• public transport accessibility & limited access to public spaces
• lack of pwr in public & private decision-making
  eg
  even in DC like SG, now oni 27 elected women parliamentarian out of total 93, 29.13% of national seating oni
  -> lack representat n of women mean their specific needs & concerns often overlooked, perpetuate gender inequality
  eg2
  Ada Colau is first ever woman mayor elected in history in city of Barcelona, Spain
  during tenure, she was vv public abt promote gender equality
  one new govt measure she advocated was add n promot n of women in digital sector, strengthen feminist perspective in construct n of increasingly tech-driven society
  this helped create new jobs, strengthen econ standing w btr pay

Question 8

What psychological issues do women face?

Answer 8

• mental health challenges related to pa to succeed both at home & workplace
• safety concerns: overcoming fear & crime in cities
  eg Cairo, New Delhi in India r conservative societies, deeply entrenched views thruout history w rife discriminat n
  women r subject to harassmt in public areas & sexual violence r not uncommon
• denied having rights & voice in make decision, shape their lives

Question 9

Name strategies to address economic, social and psychological issues of women

Answer 9

econ
- equal pay for equal work
- overcoming occupational segregat n by promote non-traditional careers to women
- raise awareness, changing attitudes twd equitable distribut n of care work thru public edu n, mass media
- provide accessible, affordable childcare svc, offer flexible work arrangemt

social
- equal access to basic svc, including hc, edu n
- address transport n access, having common public spaces

psychological
- zero tolerance for sexual harrassmt, gender-based bias
- promoting women’s rights, & voice in make decision

Question 10

Explain effectiveness of equal pay for equal work in Germany (Economic issue for women)

Answer 10

• one of most effective way to narrow gender pay gap is implement min living wage (wage floor)
• cities in Germany hv highest gender wage discrepancies among OECD country, esp among low-wage earner
• in 2015, to tackle high gender wage gap 18.2% in 2014, Germany introduce national min wage set at relatively high lvl (abt gross sum of 8.50 euro/ 12.50SGD)
• this helped improve econ situat n then for > 4 mill employee, of which 2/3 were women
• min wage thus effective tool to reduce (not eliminate) gender wage gap, esp at lower end of wage distribut n (ie low wage earner, mostly women)

HOWEVER
- though min wage floor reviewed every 2 yr, w further proposal to increase to 12.41 euro per hour in 2024, high inflat n, interest rate hiked by European Central Bank hv signi dampen ppl’s PP in Europe’s biggest econ
- sharp rise in inflat n hit lower income earner particularly hard, so another hike in min wage was justified, but rise proposed this time too small to make up for increased cost of living

Question 11

Explain effectiveness of overcoming occupational segregation by promoting non-traditional careers to women, using example in Singapore (Economic issue for women)

Answer 11

• women in SG edi hv range benefit, protect n, like legal rights, policies aimed at promote gender equality, women empwrmt
• women hv access to high-quality edu n system, w equal opportun to attend primary, secondary, tertiary edu n institu n
• there r oso initiatives aimed at encourage women to pursue STEM fields (traditionally male dominated)
• workplace protect n include regulat n that prohibit discriminat n in workplace based on gender, require employer provide equal pay for equal work
• employer r required to offer paid maternity leave, protect n against dismissal for pregnant employees too

HOWEVER
- SG ranked low 49 out of 146 country in 2023 global gender gap index compiled by World Econ Forum
- SG scored rating oni 0.739 in terms of gender equality (1=equality) w marginal improvemt +0.005 fr 2022, showing there is still room to improve
- Ministry of Manpwr revealed in 2018, women earn 6% less on avg than man w same job in same industry, & of same age, edu n qualif n
- pay gap largely attributed to occupational segregat n, w many women dominate in traditionally female occupat n eg nursing, teaching, & men were over-represented in higher-paying occupat n
- this stem fr patriarchal values, & traditional mindset abt gender roles, viewing man as family breadwinner while woman as caregiver, still deeply entrentched in SG society
- even today, women still expected take on caregiving role at home, sacrifice career, & when ready return to workforce, hired to do same job w lesser pay due to lack of work experience

Question 12

Explain effectiveness of raise awareness, change attitude towards equitable distribution of care work through public education and mass media using example of Copenhagen (Economic issue for women)

Answer 12

• Copenhagen, capital of Denmark, promote balance btw work & family life for all gender & hv implement various policies to support gender equality
• include parental leave policies encouraging both parents take time off work to care for children, promote more equal distribut n of parenting responsibilities
• most fathers in Copenhagen take avg 3 month paid paternity leave to look after their children
  => help reduce stress, burden on women for caregiving roles, allow men to b more involved in families’ lives
  => women can hv time for gainful employmt, enhance their econ well-being

HOWEVER,
- not all cities can afford for both parents to stay home to care for their children or even pay them for doing so
- large monetary funding, incentivisat n needed for cities to convince companies/employers to grant both parents such privileges

Question 13

Explain effectiveness of provide accessible, affordable childcare services, offer flexible work arrangements, using example of Denmark (Economic issue for women)

Answer 13

• Denmark, including capital Copenhagen, hv made substantial effort create inclusive society
• hv policies support work-life balance, childcare, equal opportun for men, women
• Copenhagen’s flexible work culture see most mother be able get off work early, report late so they can hv more time look into need of their children
• an extensive, affordable childcare oso mean huge proport n of mothers can return to work
• In Copenhagen, families pay up to 25% of cost of day care, w those on low income/single parents pay btw nothing & 25% of cost, w discount for sibling, govt make up diff
• provis n flexible work arrangemt, affordable, easily accessible daycare centre, school, offer both men, women opportun to have their children, elderly relative taken care of during daytime, allow them work, contribute to economy
  => these institut n help copenhagen secure high lvl gender equality in job market

HOWEVER,
- in Denmark 97% of children aged 3 to 5 & 92% aged 1 to 2 in daycare
- while ard 55% attend centres, rest r looked after by registered childminders in private homes, costing parents similar amt
- Copenhagen experience similar trend, posing serious challenge of funding to build larger spaces, more daycare centres to accommodate increase in no of child & find suitable staff to manage them

Question 14

What can be concluded from strategies to address economic issues for women?

Answer 14

• require multi-faceted approach involving policies promoting equal pay, support for work-life balance, affordable childcare, efforts to challenge traditional gender role, biases
• oso essential to create inclusive urban environ considering women social well-being eg prioritise women accessibility to basic svc (edu n, hc, mobility, empowermt) & psycholo well-being (offer safety, hv right to voice out opinion)

Question 15

Explain effectiveness of equal access to basic services including healthcare and education using Singapore as example (Social issue for women)

Answer 15

• Women in SG hv access to comprehensive hc system, w high-quality fac & med professional
• there r oso program in place support women’s health, include breast cancer screening, HPV vaccin n

HOWEVER
- unlike many global counterpart, where hc svc made free to all, in SG, all must pay for their own care
- if covered by 1 of govt subsidy scheme or mandatory saving plan eg Medicare, Medishield, they wld still hv to co-pay for med, consult n fee
- this can take up sum fr women’s edi low disposable income
=> low-income grp esp bear w health issues, not seek any med aid

Question 16

Explain effectiveness of addressing transportation access, having common public spaces for women, using example of few cities (Social issue for women)

Answer 16

• Barcelona city, Spain, hv implemented measures ensure safety of women in public spaces, eg add more street lighting so women not fearful of travelling beyond home for work, social interact n
• Stockholm, Sweden, well-recognised for focus on gender equality in urban plan & public spaces, implemented similar gender-segregated public transport n during late hours
• this refers to practice of segregate pax based on gender on public trasport n system, esp women, to prevent them fr experience unnecessary harrassmt, assault, other form misconduct

HOWEVER
- gender segregat n in public transport n can be controversial
- critics argue it perpetuate gender stereotype, restrict indiv freedom
- there r concern abt potential discriminat n, exclus n, underminining notion of grant equal access to transport n for all gender

Question 17

Explain effectiveness of zero tolerance for sexual harassment and gender-based bias, using Singapore as example (Psychological issue for women)

Answer 17

• SG hv law in place to protect women fr gender-based violence, including sexual harrasmt, domestic violence
• National Anti-Violence and Sexual Harrassmt Helpline and AWARE’s Women’s Care Centres in Singapore oso provide info, support for women in distress or at time of uncertainty in their lives
• in event of divorce, there r legal protect n for women property rights, do not apply to men at all

HOWEVER
- women r still too embarrassed to report, cnt identify specifically many subtle sexual innuendo they received fr male colleague at workplace
- fears of backlash, esp fr male bosses can cause women be subjected to uncomfortable working environ, fearing their personal safety, add on to work stress, -vely affect econ performance & psycholo well-being
- same applies to gender violence; some wives too embarrassed report husband as they feel humiliating to expose latter’s deeds or unwilling so as to avoid severing r/s any further
- far too many cases eg rape, molest, upskirt go unreported in SG; many women still hold back for a variety of reasons (eg insuff evidence, r/s)

Question 18

Explain effectiveness of promote women’s rights and voice in making decisions, using Singapore as example (Psychological issue for women)

Answer 18

• in 2023, there r 3 full Minister, 2 Senior Minister of State, 3 Minister of State, 1 Pariliamentary Secretary in SG who r women
• this is a stark improvemt vs b4 1991 when whole parliamt dominated by men
• similar observ n oso made as more women take up leadership pos n as CEO, director, managerial role in many companies
• tgt w establismt of Women’s Charter in 1961 & founding of AWARE formed in 1985 w goal promote equal opportun for all women in SG, no. of focus grp discus , conference hv been held to aid in state’s decis n making process w regard to issues eg reduce sexual violence, workplace sexual harrassmt, poverty in older women
  => increase public awareness of women’s rights, changed traditional mindsets stereotyping women to certain extent
• all these helped boost women’s self-esteem, confidence as their status, contribut n r affirmed both in their families & in society, +vely enhance psycholo well-being

HOWEVER
- in total, oni 29 elected women Members of Parliament out of 99 in SG in 2023; still below 30% benchmark often identified as necessary lvl of representat n to achieve ‘critical minority’ (ie fail proportionately represent women in SG who make up half of nation pop n)
- though there r legal law, strict police enforcemt, care support to meet psycholo need of women, there still r gap in terms of under-represent n of women leadership in main decision-making processes
- deeply entrenched societal views of stereotyping domestic role of women
- most still feel obligated to fulfill caregiving roles even if they r in workforce, & subsequently succumb to stress, anxiety such dual roles create

Question 19

What can be concluded from strategies addressing social and psychological issues for women?

Answer 19

• women in SG benefit fr workplace protect n, edu n, training opportun, access to hc, family-friendly policies & legal protect n
  BUT
• there is till strong percept n of gender pay gap, underrepresentat n in leadership pos n

Question 20

What is the conclusion of all strategies addressing problems for women?

Answer 20

• impt to note achieve gender equality is complex, ongoing process needing efforts at national, regional, local lvl
• many more cities, countries ard world work towards improve women’s edu n, empowermt as part of commitmt to achieve gender equality
• progress in achieve gender equality can vary over time due to changes in policies, cultural attitude, other factors
• it is certain that empower women at home, in workplace & in decis n making roles can positively contribute to econ growth, reduce poverty, raise general well-being of all in community, including vulnerable grp young children, elderly in society
  => make city more liveable for everyone