Lecture Test 2 Flashcards
Why is the sun a source of energy?
Plants store it’s radiant energy in the covalent bonds of monosaccharides
Where to we get energy to keep us alive?
Breaking C-C and C-H bonds
Catabolic
Reactions that break bonds
Anabolic
Reactions that make bonds
Oxidation
The loss of electrons by a molecule
Reduction
The gain of electrons by a molecule
ATP
Energy source of a cell
ATP = ADP + energy + PO4
ADP
Empty battery, Charged in mitochondria by cellular respiration
ADP + energy + PO4 = ATP
C6H12O6 + 6O2 =
6CO2 + 6H2O +38 ATP
Glycolysis
Happens in Cytoplasm
Glucose + 2NAD = 2 pyruvic acid + 2 ATP + 2NADH2
NAD functions
Pick up a pair of H atoms that are removed from glucose and takes them to the ETS for further processing.
Anaerobic; NADH2 used to reduce 2 pyruvic acids into lactic acid
Aerobic; in mitochondria 2 pyruvic acids attached to Coenzyme A to become acetyl CoA
NADH2 = 1H2O + 3ATP
Kreb’s Cycle
2 Acetyl CoA drop off an acetyl group and enzymes squeeze energy out
Acetyl group + Oxaloacetic Acid = Citric Acid
2 Acetyl CoA = 6NADH2 + 2FADH2 + 2 ATP + 4CO2
Formation of Acetyl CoA
In Mitocondria
2 Pyruvic Acids = 2 Acetyl CoA + 2NADH2 + 2CO2
Electron Transport System
Proton pumping = Chemiosmosis
Oxygen = terminal electron acceptor of ETS
10NADH2 + 2FADH2 + 4ATP = 10H2O + 38ATP
NADH2 and FADH2 lose H during ETS to become NAD and FAD
FAD functions
FADH2 = 1H2O + 2ATP
DNA bases
Double Stranded Polymer Adenine Guanine Cytosine Thymine
RNA bases
Single Stranded Polymer Adenine Guanine Cytosine Uracil
monomers of DNA and RNA
called nucleotides -phosphate: PO4 -sugar: deoxyribose(DNA), ribose(RNA) -bases AGCT(DNA), AGCU(RNA) sugar phosphate backbone with bases sticking out
DNA replication
During S phase
- DNA unwinds/unzips
- Exposed bases attract their opposites
- DNA polymerase polymerizes new nucleotides to form new strand held to old strand by H bonds, new sugar-phosphate backbone held together by covalent bonds
DNA
-stores instructions for manufacture of all proteins
Gene
Code for 1 protien
Transcription
process of RNA copying off a DNA template
RNA Transcription
- DNA unwinds (1 side transcribed)
- Nucleotides base pair
- RNA polymerase covalently links sugar-phosphate backbone to form a strand of RNA
3 types of RNA
mRNA: The plan, actual instruction for particular protein, made in nucleus of eukaryotes and travels to cytoplasm to work
tRNA: Amino acid bringer, small piece that brings amino acids to the ribosome, has anticodon
rRNA: Part of the assembler, structural part of the ribosome
Exons
when mRNA is spliced, the sections that are kept
Introns
whne mRNA is spliced, the sections that are removed
Codon
mRNA base code for each amino acid
the one that attaches directly to DNA
Anticodon
tRNA base code
the one that attaches to the mRNA
Epithelia Location
cover all body surfaces and line all body cavities.
Epithelia Structure
- has a free side and tissue side
- Basement membrane between epithelia and next tissue
- packed tight, epithelial cells touch
- No blood vessels, receive nutrients from underlying connective tissue
- Mitotically active, they divide alot
Epithelia Function
Varies with type and location
protect, secrete, absorb, excrete, some act as sensory receptors
Epithelia Classifications
Shape: squamous, cuboidal, columnar
Layers: simple, stratified, pseudostratified
Simple Squamous
Function: allow diffusion and filtration
Location: alveoli, blood vessels, kidneys, serous membranes
Simple Cuboidal
Function: Secretion, Absorption
Location: ducts of glands, kidneys
Simple Columnar
Function: protection, secretion(goblet cells), absorption(microvilli aide absorption)
Location: digestive tract from stomach to rectum, uterus
Ciliated simple columnar
Function: Goblet cells make mucous, cilia move them
Location: Uterine/Fallopian tubes
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar
Function: Protection, secretion(goblet cells), movement of mucous
Location: respiratory system
Stratified squamous
2 types: Keratinized(outer layer of skin) and Mucousal (mouth, throat)
Function: protection
Transitional Epithelium
Stretched: looks like stratified squamous
Relaxed: looks like stratified cuboidal
Function: lets organs stretch, protects from urine
Location: bladder, ureters, part of urethra
Glandular Epithelium
Cells that make up glands
Function: secrete
Exocrine glands
secrete outside or into body cavities
Merocrine, Apocrine, Holocrine
i.e. sweat glands, digestive glands, salivary glands
Endocrine glands
secrete into the blood stream or tissue fluids
i.e. adrenal glands, ovaries
Merocrine
Exocrine secretion by exocytosis
Apocrine
Exocrine secretion by accumulating in apical portion of cell and pinching it off
Holocrine
Exocrine secretion by cell filling with product and dying, breaking open and dumping product
General characterisitics of Connective Tissue
Cells don’t touch
Space between is matrix
Matrix composed of fibers
Between fibers is ground substance
Good blood supply (exceptions: regular fibrous - poor, cartilage -none)
mitotically active (exceptions - ones with poor blood supply)
Fibrous types of Connective Tissues
Areolar, Adipose, Reticular, Elastic, Fibrous
Fibroblasts
secrete the matrix and grow the fibers
Macrophage
phagocytize debris and foreign invaders
Mast Cells
initiate allergic reactions and inflammation (histamine)
Adipocytes
Fat cells
Chondroblast/Chondrocyte
Makes and maintains cartilage
Osteoblast/Osteocytes
make and maintains bones
Collagen
Fiber strong and inelastic, secreted by fibroblasts, pink and wavy
Elastic Fibers
Fibers that are stretchy and flexible
Secreted by fibroblasts, stain dark purple, bacon wavy
Ground Substance
Stuff between fibers, include:
Hyaluronic acid, Chondroitin sulfate, Calcium salts
Areolar Connective Tissue
Function: binds organs together, highway for WBC’s
Locations: Subcutaneous layer, between muscles, under almost all epithelia
Adipose
Function: insulation, protection(shock absorber), energy storage
Location: Everywhere
Regular Fibrous Connective Tissue
Function: Strong inelastic connections
Location: Tendons and Ligaments
Irregular Fibrous Connective Tissue
Function: tough inelastic membrane
Location: Dermis
Elastic Connective Tissue
Function: elastic connective tissue
Location: vocal cords, walls of arteries, parts of lungs
Reticular Connective Tissue
Function: acts as a stroma (structural component of an organ)
Location: Liver, Spleen, Lymph Nodes
General Characteristics of Cartilage
Matrix = Chondroitin sulfate + fibers
Chondrocytes occupy lacuna (hole)
No direct blood supply
Surrounded by fibrous connective tissue (perichondrium = blood supply for chondrocytes)
Semi-rigid for support, protection, model for bone growth, form attachment sites
Hyaline Cartilage
Function: cushion, support, model for bone growth
Location: tip of nose, ends of bones
Elastic Cartilage
Function: elastic support
Location: ear, epiglottis
Fibrocartilage
Function: work as a shock-absorbing pad
Location: intervertebral disk, knee
General Characterisitics of Bone
Most rigid Connective Tissue
Fibers - collagen
Ground substance - calcium salts
Functions: support, protection, movement, blood cell formation, storage of minerals (Ca)
Lamellae
Layers of bone
Osteonic Canal
Central canal of bone that supplies blood
canaliculi
small canals that connect osteocytes for quick movement of gases and nutrients
General Characterisitics of Blood
Structure: RBC’s, WBC’s, platelets, with a matrix of plasma
Function: transport and disease protection
Neurons
Type of nervous tissue cell, cytoplasmic processes up to 3 feet long
Function: iriitability and conduction
Neuroglial
Type of nervous tissue cell, not irritable and does not conduct
Serous Membranes
Structure: simple squamous over loose connective tissue
Function: secretes serous fluid (lubricant full of water and hyaluronic acid)
Location: lines all subdivisions of ventral body cavity that don’t have outside openings
Mucous Membranes
Structure: epithelia over loos connective
Function: absorption, secretion, protection, disease prevention
Location: all major body cavities that open to the outside
Cutaneous membrane
Structure: keratinized stratified squamous over irregular fibrous connective
Function: 1. Protection against dehydration, infection, mechanical damage, UV radiation
- sensory organ
- regulates body temp
- makes Vit. D
Synovial Membranes
Structure: mix of loose connective backed by fibrous connective, secretes excess ground substance
Function: secrete synovial fluid (lubricant full of hyaluronic acid)
Location: lining the joint capsule
Thick skin
on palms and soles of feet
Stratum Basale
Basement membrane closest to dermis
Single Layer of Keratinocytes
Best access to nutrients, actively divide
Stratum Spinosum
Layer above stratum Basale
Begin filling with keratin fibers
Stratum Granulosum
Dying cells between Stratum Spinosum and Stratum Corneum (or Stratum Lucidum if thick skin)
Stratum Lucidum
Only on thick skin
Between Stratum Granulosum and Stratum Corneum
Stratum Corneum
Above Stratum Granulosum (or Stratum Lucidum on thick skin)
Dead keratinized cells held together by desmosomes
Tough waterproof barrier
Desquamation
old cells shedding from stratum corneum (exfoliation)
Melanocytes
In epidermis next to basement membrane
Produce melanin secreted by exocytosis
Melanin absorbed by keratinocytes, acts as natural sunscreen
Epidermal Dendritic Cells
Scouts for immune system
Tactile Cells
Sensory receptors for light touch
Dermis
Composed of irregular dense fibrous connective tissue
Papillary Layer
upper layer of dermis
Tactile Corpuscles
Contained in ridges of papillary layer and respond to light touch
Reticular Layer
Bottom layer of dermis, network of collagen and elastic fibers
Factors of skin color
- Melanin (shades of yellow/red and brown/black)
- Carotene: from diet a precursor of Vit. A
- Blood
- Collagen: refracts light
Lunula
Half Moon at base of fingernail, growth occurs until end of lunula
Eponychium
Cuticle
Eccrine Gland
Merocrine type of gland
Secretion controlled by nervous system
Secrete: water, NaCl, Urea
Apocrine
Axillia and Groin region
Ducts empty into hair shafts
Don’t kick in until puberty
Controlled by nervous system and respond to stress
Secrete: water, NaCl, urea, lipid, protein
Sebaceous Glands
Secretes Sebum by holocrine secretion
blackheads, lanolin
Ceruminous Glands
secrete earwax (natrual bug repellant and antibacterial)
Mammary Glands
Giant specialized sweat glands
Minor Skin Healing
increasing division rate of stratum basale
Major Skin Healing
Inflamation: Forms clot, fights infection
Repair/Migratory Phase: Scab, epidermis repairs from edges in, fibroblasts repair
Done/Maturation Phase: Scab falls off, dermis and epidermis finish
Types of Burns
1st degree: Epidermis (sunburn)
2nd degree: Dermis (red and blistered)
3rd degree: Subcutaneous layer
Problems with Burns
Massive loss of fluids Shock Renal Failure Infection Inability to regulate body temp
