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anatomy and physiology 1 > lecture exam 4 > Flashcards

lecture exam 4 Flashcards

1
Q

: made up of the brain and the spinal cord

A

Central nervous system (CNS)

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2
Q

: made up of the neural tissue outside of the CNS

A

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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3
Q

location of cranial nerves

A

coming off the brain

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4
Q

location of spinal nerves

A

coming off the spinal cord

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5
Q

carrying nerve impulses from the sensory receptors to the central nervous system

A

Afferent division:

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6
Q

carrying nerve impulses from the central nervous system to muscles, visceral organs, and glands

A

Efferent division:

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7
Q

cells that transmit nervous impulses

A

Neurons:

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8
Q

highly branched processes which carry nervous impulses toward the cell body

A

Dendrites:

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9
Q

long cytoplasmic process which carries nervous impulses away from the cell body

A

Axon:

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10
Q

end of an axon which interacts with another cell at the synapse

A

Synaptic terminal (aka, synaptic knob, axon terminal):

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11
Q

junction between a neuron and another cell

A

Synapse:

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12
Q

has one long axon and only one dendrite, positioned at opposite ends of the cell body; occurs in special sense organs

A

Bipolar:

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13
Q

appears to have one process which bifurcates into an axon and a single dendrite; most sensory neurons are unipolar

A

Unipolar (aka, pseudounipolar):

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14
Q

` has one long axon and many dendrites; most common type of neuron in the CNS

A

Multipolar:

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15
Q

small, with a short axon not easily distinguished from the dendrites; primarily found in the brain and in special sense organs

A

Anaxonic:

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16
Q

the 4 types of neuronal classification are

A

bipolar, unipolar, multipolar, anaxonic

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17
Q

cells of the afferent division of the peripheral nervous system

A

Sensory neurons:

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18
Q

cells of the efferent division of the peripheral nervous system

A

Motor neurons:

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19
Q

may act as connectors between sensory and motor neurons; located entirely within the central nervous system

A

Interneurons (aka, association) neurons:

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20
Q

support cells of the nervous system

A

Neuroglia:

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21
Q

epithelial cells, lining the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord; some specialized ependymal cells secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

A

Ependymal cell:

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22
Q

support cell for neurons in the central nervous system; a component of the ‘blood-brain barrier’

A

Astrocyte:

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23
Q

the ‘immune system’ cells of the central nervous system

A

Microglia:

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24
Q

processes wrap around axons and dendrites of the central nervous system, insulating them

A

Oligodendrocyte:

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25
Q

a multi-layered membranous covering; increases the speed of action potential propagation along the axon

A

Myelin:

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26
Q

ependymal cell, astrocyte, microglia, oligodendrocyte, and myelin are located within the ______ _______ _______

A

central nervous system

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27
Q

surround and provide support for neuron cell bodies within a ganglion

A

Satellite cells:

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28
Q

a cluster of neuron cell bodies

A

Ganglion:

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29
Q

myelinate axons and dendrites of the peripheral nervous system

A

Schwann cells:

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30
Q

satellite cells, ganglion, and schwann cells are located where?

A

within the peripheral nervous system

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31
Q
  1. Uneven distribution of cations on either side of the cell membrane
  2. Inner surface of cell membrane is more negatively charged than the outer surface; the membrane is said to be ‘polarized’
  3. Resting potential = -70mV
A

Resting potential of the cell membrane of a neuron

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32
Q

(resting potential becomes more negative)

A

Hyperpolarizing

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33
Q

(resting potential becomes less negative)

A

depolarizing

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34
Q

amount of change in membrane potential is directly proportional to the size of the stimulus

A

Graded potential:

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35
Q

local changes in membrane potential can be additive if they occur close together in time or space

A

Summation:

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36
Q

membrane potential at which sodium-channels open, allowing sodium ions to readily enter the cell; depolarization to -60 to -55mV (for neurons)

A

Threshold potential:

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37
Q

wave of depolarization that is propagated across an entire cell membrane

A

Action potential (aka, nervous impulse):

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38
Q

the properties of the action potential are independent of the relative strength of the depolarizing stimulus as long as that stimulus exceeds the threshold potential

A

The All-or-None Principle:

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39
Q

Generation of an action potential

A

a. Depolarization of the membrane to threshold potential
b. Activation of the sodium channels, allowing sodium ions to enter the cell; cell membrane depolarizes entirely
c. Sodium channels close and potassium channels reopen, causing the membrane to repolarize
d. Resting potential is re-established and normal ion permeability is restored

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40
Q

junction between a neuron and another cell

A

The synapse:

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41
Q

transmission of neural impulse from one cell to another

A

Synaptic transmission:

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42
Q

______ ________ of the synaptic terminal releases neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

A

Presynaptic membrane

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43
Q

space between the two cells

A

Synaptic cleft:

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44
Q

________ diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to _______ within the postsynaptic membrane

A

Neurotransmitter, receptors

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45
Q

Postsynaptic membrane may become _______, generating propagation of an action potential in the _______ ______

A

depolarized, postsynaptic membrane

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46
Q

Postsynaptic membrane may become ________, inhibiting propagation of an action potential in the _______ ______

A

hyperpolarized, postsynaptic membrane

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47
Q

The effect of a________ on the postsynaptic membrane depends on the _______ __ ___ _______, not on the nature of the neurotransmitter

A

neurotransmitter, properties of the receptor

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48
Q

Modification of the sarcolemma into the______ -____ -_____

A

‘motor end plate’

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49
Q

made up of a single motor neuron and those muscle fibers controlled by it

A

The motor unit:

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50
Q

autoimmune disease causing muscle weakness

A

Myasthenia gravis:

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51
Q

neurotoxin prevents muscle contraction, by preventing release of neurotransmitter from the motor neuron

A

Botulism:

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52
Q

neurotoxin causes excessive stimulation of target muscle, which results in severe muscle spasms and sustained muscle contractions

A

Tetanus:

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53
Q

clinical considerations with neural tissue are?

A

myasthenia gravis, botulism, and tetanus

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54
Q

center of conscious thought

A

Cerebrum:

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55
Q

(composed of ‘gray matter’; i.e., mostly neuron cell bodies)

A

cerebral cortex

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56
Q

located in the frontal lobe, just in front of the central sulcus (i.e., the pre-central gyrus)

A

Motor cortex,

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57
Q

, located in the parietal lobe, just behind the central sulcus (i.e., the post-central gyrus)

A

Sensory cortex

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58
Q

located throughout the cerebral cortex

A

Association and integration areas,

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59
Q

(composed primarily of myelinated axons)

A

Central white matter

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60
Q

(clusters of gray matter embedded within the central white matter)
Centers for subconscious motor control

A

Cerebral nuclei

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61
Q

Diencephalon, containing the _____ and ______

A

thalamus, hypothalamus

62
Q

_______ located on either side of the third ventricle

A

Thalamus,

63
Q

what does the thalamus do?

A

Relays and filters sensory information ascending from the spinal cord to the cerebral nuclei and cerebral cortex

64
Q

lying below the thalamus and making up the lower walls and floor of the third ventricle

  1. Contains important control and integrative centers (i.e., control of autonomic functions, of skeletal muscle contractions, coordination of nervous and endocrine systems, regulation of homeostasis)
  2. Production of emotions and behavioral drives
A

Hypothalamus,

65
Q

the ‘primitive’ or ‘emotional’ brain

  1. Functional unit, composed of elements along the boundary between the cerebrum, diencephalon, and mesencephalon
  2. Controls emotional experience and expression
A

Limbic system:

66
Q

joins lower parts of the brain stem and spinal cord to the diencephalon and cerebrum
A. Includes several masses of gray matter which serve as reflex centers (e.g., visual and auditory reflexes)
B. Contains bundles of sensory nerve fibers ascending to the thalamus and bundles of motor fibers descending from the motor cortex

A

Mesencephalon (aka, midbrain):

67
Q

A. Composed of an outer cortex of gray matter, an inner area of white matter, and deep clusters of gray matter (i.e., cerebellar nuclei)
B. Coordinates automatic adjustment of skeletal muscles to maintain posture
C. Fine-tuning of learned motor patterns
D. Connected to all other parts of the brain

A

Cerebellum

68
Q

A. Links the cerebellum to the mesencephalon, cerebrum, and spinal cord
B. Contains nuclei for cranial nerves V (Trigeminal) through VIII (Vestibulocochlear)
C. Contains nuclei dealing with control of respiration

A

Pons

69
Q

` an enlarged continuation of the spinal cord, extending from the foramen magnum to the pons
A. Relay for all sensory and motor nerve tracts
B. Contains nuclei associated with autonomic control of visceral activities (e.g., cardiovascular centers, respiratory rhymicity centers)
C. Contains nuclei for cranial nerves VIII (vestibulocochlear) through XII (hypoglossal)

A

Medulla oblongata:

70
Q

the meninges

A

Coverings of the brain:

71
Q
  1. Dural folds: falx cerebri, falx cerebelli, tentorium cerebelli
A

Dura mater

72
Q
  1. Subarachnoid space and the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CFS)
A

Arachnoid mater

73
Q

fused to the outside surface of the brain

A

Pia mater:

74
Q

contains cell bodies of somatic and visceral sensory neurons

A

Posterior gray horn:

75
Q

contains cell bodies of somatic motor neurons

A

Anterior gray horn:

76
Q

contains cell bodies of visceral motor neurons

A

Lateral gray horn:

77
Q

White matter divided into three regions:

A

anterior, posterior, and lateral columns (aka, funiculi [pl.]; funiculus [sing.])

78
Q

carry sensory information to the brain

A

Ascending tracts:

79
Q

carry motor commands out to the periphery

A

Descending tracts:

80
Q

Fiber characteristics within a tract

A

a. All fibers carry information in the same direction
b. All fibers have similar diameter and degree of myelination; therefore, conduction speed is similar
c. All fibers have similar place of origin
d. Fibers may have different destinations

81
Q

nerve roots

A

ventral root (efferent fibers), dorsal root (afferent fibers), and dorsal root (housing sensory neuron body cells)

82
Q

Coverings of the spinal cord:

A

the meninges

83
Q
  1. Dura mater
    a. Epidural space
  2. Arachnoid mater
    a. Subarachnoid space and the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CFS)
  3. Pia mater: fused to the outside surface of the spinal cord
A

Covering of the spinal cord

84
Q

spinal nerve coverings

A

endoneurium, perineurium, epineurium

85
Q

surrounds each individual fiber (i.e, neuronal axon or dendrite) of the peripheral nervous system

A

Endoneurium:

86
Q

surrounds a fascicle (i.e., a bundle of nerve fibers)

A

Perineurium:

87
Q

surrounds a peripheral nerve (i.e., a bundle of fascicles)

A

Epineurium:

88
Q

pathways of a typical spinal nerve

A

dorsal primary ramus, ventral primary ramus

89
Q

sensory and motor innervation to skin and muscles near the spinal column

A

Dorsal primary ramus:

90
Q

sensory and motor innervation to the rest of the body

a. Spinal plexuses (cervical, brachial, and lumbosacral)

A

Ventral primary ramus:

91
Q

Rami communicantes

A

a. White ramus

b. Gray ramus

92
Q

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

A. Differences from the Somatic Nervous System

A
  1. Always has two motor neurons in the pathway, from the central nervous system to the target organ
  2. Innervates smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glandular tissue
93
Q

Subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system

A

Sympathetic division:

Parasympathetic division:

94
Q

in general, prepares the body for ‘fight or flight’

A

Sympathetic division:

95
Q

_______ _______ originate in the thoracolumbar region (in the lateral gray horn of ___ __ __)

A

Preganglionic neurons,

T1-L2

96
Q

Postganglionic neurons originate in three different places

A

. Sympathetic chain ganglia (aka, para-vertebral ganglia), reaching from the cervical region down to the sacral region

ii. Collateral ganglia (aka, prevertebral ganglia), located anterior to the vertebral bodies
iii. Adrenal medulla

97
Q

: in general, prepares the body for ‘rest and repose’ (aka, ‘feed and breed’)

A

Parasympathetic division

98
Q

Preganglionic neurons originate in the brain stem (as components of __ ___[oculomotor],___ [facial], __[glossopharyngeal], and __ [vagus]) and in the sacral segments of the spinal cord (in the lateral gray horn of S2-S4)

A

CN III , VII, IX, X,

99
Q

_______ ________ occur in peripheral ganglia located ______ -___ ____ to the target organ

A

Postganglionic neurons,

within or adjacent

100
Q

Most vital organs receive_______ _______

A

dual innervation

101
Q

Dual innervation usually takes place as ______ ________

A

opposing effects

102
Q

Some organs receive innervation from _____ ___ ______

A

only one system

103
Q

sensory receptor responds only to a specific type of stimulus

A

Specificity:

104
Q

the area monitored by a single receptor cell

A

Receptive field:

105
Q

sensory receptor adjusts to a continuous sensory stimulus over time

A

Sensory adaptation:

106
Q

process by which the brain causes a sensation to be perceived as originating at the point of stimulation

A

Projection:

107
Q

Classification by stimulus location

A
  1. Exteroceptors

2. Interoceptors

108
Q

respond to mechanical deformation of the nerve receptor

A

Mechanoreceptors:

109
Q

respond to [potential] damage to the receptor

A

Pain receptors (aka, nociceptors):

110
Q

respond to temperature stimuli

A

Thermoreceptors:

111
Q

respond to chemical stimuli

A

Chemoreceptors:

112
Q

respond to light stimuli

A

Photoreceptors:

113
Q

touch, pressure, vibration (e.g., Meissner’s and Pacinian corpuscles [aka, corpuscle of touch and lamellated corpuscle, respectively])

A

Tactile receptors:

114
Q

changes in pressures within a distensible organ (e.g., within a blood vessel wall)

A

Baroreceptors:

115
Q

monitor position/location of joints and muscles; stimulus sent to cerebellum and parietal lobe of cerebrum

A

Proprioceptors:

116
Q
  1. Free nerve endings with a large receptive field
  2. Respond to damage or extreme deformation of the receptor ending; do not adapt
  3. Stimulus travels to the thalamus, and then to the cerebral cortex (parietal lobe)
A

Pain receptors

117
Q
  1. Cold vs. hot receptors
  2. Active during changing temperatures but quickly adapt to a stable temperature
  3. Stimulus travels to parietal lobe of cerebrum
A

Thermoreceptors

118
Q

detect changes in the concentration of specific chemical compounds (e.g., the carotid body monitors the concentration of CO2 and O2 in the blood)

  1. Sensory input goes to the brain stem, not to the cerebral cortex
  2. Responds to water- and lipid-soluble substances dissolved in the surrounding fluid
A

Chemoreceptors:

119
Q

the sense of smell

  1. Olfactory receptor cells: chemoreceptors located within the olfactory epithelium; adapt quickly
  2. Receptor cells synapse with neurons within the olfactory bulbs (Cranial Nerve I)
  3. Extensive limbic and hypothalamic connections (potential for significant emotional and behavioral responses); then passed on to the olfactory cortex (temporal lobe of the cerebrum)
A

Olfaction

120
Q
  1. Chemoreceptors housed in the taste buds located on the tongue and on the walls of the pharynx
    a. Synapse with sensory fibers of cranial nerves VII (facial), IX (glossopharyngeal), and X (vagus)
    b. Impulses end up in the cortex of the parietal and temporal lobes of the cerebrum
    c. Taste sensations supplemented by input from olfactory receptors
  2. Primary taste sensations: sweet, sour, salt, bitter, umami (aka., ‘savory’); water and ‘metallic’ have also been suggested
A

Gustation: the sense of taste

121
Q

composed of the sclera and the cornea

A

Fibrous tunic:

122
Q

composed of the choroid layer, iris, pupil, and ciliary body

A

Vascular tunic:

123
Q

` composed of the pigmented layer and the neural laye

A

Neural tunic [aka, retina]:

124
Q

Placement of the lens divides the eyeball into two spaces: a large _____ _____ (filled with vitreous humor) and a smaller ______ ______ (filled with aqueous humor)

A

posterior cavity

anterior cavity

125
Q

Photoreceptors housed in the _______

A

retina

126
Q

for visual acuity in dim light; distributed in a broad band on the periphery of the retina

A

Rods:

127
Q

for color vision; distributed along the posterior retinal surface, concentrated in the fovea centralis of the macula lutea

A

Cones:

128
Q

Light activates visual _____ contained in _____ in the outer segment of the ____ ___ ______

A

pigments,
discs,
rods and cones

129
Q

Rods and cones synapse with ____ _____, which in turn synapse with ________ ____

A

bipolar cells

ganglion cells

130
Q

_______ ___ ________ cells provide interconnections between different parts of the retina

A

Horizontal and amacrine

131
Q

_______ _____ ________ _______ converge on the optic disc to form the optic nerve (Cranial Nerve II

A

Axons from the ganglion cells

132
Q

_______ ______ synapses with ______ within both sides of the __________, which then proceed to the visual cortex of the occipital lobe of ___ _________ _________ (producing stereoscopic vision)

A

Optic nerve
neurons
diencephalon
the cerebral hemispheres

133
Q

large overlap between right and left visual fields

A

Binocular vision:

134
Q

Focusing of the image on the retina is accomplished by ______ ____ ___ ____ (i.e., ‘accommodation’)

A

changing the shape of the lens

135
Q

a. Relaxation of the ciliary muscles causes the lens to _______ ____

A

flatten out

136
Q

Contraction of the ciliary muscles causes the lens to be _____ _______

A

more spherical

137
Q

auricle (aka, pinna) and the external auditory canal

A

External ear:

138
Q

tympanic membrane, auditory ossicles (malleus [aka, hammer], incus [anvil], stapes [stirrup]), pharyngotympanic tube (aka, auditory or Eustachian tube)

A

Middle ear:

139
Q

a hollow bony labyrinth, divided into three semicircular canals, the vestibule, and the cochlea

A

Inner ear:

140
Q

(aka, scala tympani and scala vestibule, respectively), containing perilymph; connected at the tip of the cochlear spiral

A

Tympanic and vestibular ducts

141
Q

(aka, scala media), containing endolymph and the Organ of Corti

A

Cochlear duct

142
Q

hair cells (mechanoreceptors) which rest on the basilar membrane and contact the overlying tectorial membrane

A

Organ of Corti:

143
Q

i. Sound waves arrive at the tympanic membrane
ii. Movement of the tympanic membrane causes displacement of the auditory ossicles
iii. Movement of the stapes at the oval window establishes pressure waves in the perilymph of the vestibular duct
iv. The pressure waves distort the basilar membrane on their way to the round window of the tympanic duct
v. Vibration of the basilar membrane causes vibration of hair cells against the tectorial membrane, generating a nervous impulse
vi. Information about the region and intensity of stimulation is relayed to the medulla oblongata over the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
vii. Auditory signals proceed from the medulla oblongata to the mesencephalon, then to the thalamus and finally to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe of the cerebrum

A

The hearing process

144
Q

: the sense of balance

A

Equilibrium

145
Q

_____________ in the semicircular canals respond to rotational movement of the head

A

Mechanoreceptors

146
Q

____ _____ within the ______ respond to movement of the surrounding ________

A

Hair cells / ampulla / endolymph

147
Q

Mechanoreceptors in the ______ and _____ (located within the vestibule) provide positional information even when the head is stationary

A

utricle/ saccule

148
Q

Hair cells are clustered in a _____, covered by a thin layer of _____ (densely packed calcium carbonate crystals)

A

macula/ otoliths

149
Q

Gravitational pull on the ______ deforms the hair cells in specific ways, registering whether the head is level or tilted

A

otoliths

150
Q

______ _____ of the vestibule and _______ _____ synapse with fibers of the vestibular branch of the _______ ________(CN VIII); nervous signal is relayed to the vestibular nuclei at the boundary of the _______ _______ and ________

A

Hair cells / semicircular canals/ vestibulocochlear nerve / medulla oblongata/ and pons

151
Q

Signals proceed from the ________ _______ to the cerebellum, _______ _______, and to _____ ______ in the brain stem and spinal cord controlling eye, _____, and ____ movements

A

vestibular nuclei/ cerebral cortex/ motor nuclei / head/ neck

anatomy and physiology 1 (6 decks)

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