Lecture Exam 3 Flashcards
What two cell types make up neural tissue?
neurons(nerve cells)
neuroglial cells
What is the difference between the CNS and the PNS?
central nervous system comprises the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system includes nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
Where, in the body, are these two divisions of the nervous system?
CNS = brain and spinal cord
PNS = nerves that branch off from the spinal cord and extend to all parts of the body
What is the difference between a cranial nerve and a spinal nerve?
Cranial nerves = vision, sense of the smell, hearing, sense of taste and eye movements
Spinal nerves = movement, sensation and sweat secretion
What is the difference between the afferent and the efferent division?
afferent/sensory division transmits from peripheral organs to the CNS.
efferent/motor division transmits from the CNS out to the peripheral organs to cause an effect or action.
What are the subdivisions of the efferent division of the nervous system, and what do they do?
somatic nervous system =a subdivision of your PNS = allows you to move and control muscles
autonomic nervous system = regulates involuntary heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal.
What are the two subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system?
sympathetic and parasympathetic
What is the difference between unipolar/bipolar/multipolar neurons?
Unipolar neurons have one axon
Bipolar neurons have an axon and one dendrite
Multipolar neurons have multiple dendrites and a single axon
What is a synapse?
site of communication between a nerve cell and some other cell
How many cells are involved in a synapse, and what do these cells do?
two cells
pass messages to communicate
Where are neurotransmitters found (under resting conditions)?
synaptic vesicles
How do cells communicate (using the synapse)?
Electrical
Chemical
What types of cells are presynaptic and postsynaptic cells?
presynaptic = releases neurotransmitter
postsynaptic = receives a signal
What are the three functional classifications of neurons, and what do they do?
excitatory, inhibitory or modulatory
Difference between somatic and visceral with regards to sensory and motor neurons
somatic sense the environment
visceral respond by regulating vital functions
Be able to name the types of neuroglia in the PNS (s,s) and the CNS (a,m,e,o), and their functions
PNS = Schwann cells and satellite cells
CNS= astrocytes, microglial cells, ependymal cells and oligodendrocytes
What is the purpose of myelin?
allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells
What does myelin look like?
protective sleeve
What is the difference between gray and white matter?
grey = 40%, contains most cells, process and send info
white = 60%, bundles that connect, senory info
What is the difference between a graded potential and an action potential?
Action = over long distances
potentials = summed together
hich two regions is the spinal cord diameter the largest? Why?
lumbar vertebral group
carry most of the body’s weight
What are dorsal roots and ventral roots, and what is contained in each?
ventral roots = motor neurons to exit the spinal cord
dorsal roots = sensory neurons to enter the spinal cord
What are the three layers of the spinal meninges? PAD
inner layer = pia mater
middle layer = arachnoid
tough outer layer = dura mater
Where is CSF located in relation to these?
over the surface of the brain and down the length of the spinal cord
Where is the epidural space?
vertebral column
What divides the spinal cord into R vs. L?
anterior median fissure
posterior median sulcus
Where is the gray and white matter in the spinal cord?
grey matter = hornlike structure
white matter = surrounding sections of the spinal cord
Where is the gray and white matter in the spinal cord?
What is a benefit of organization of spinal cord gray matter? MSV
muscle movement
sensory information
vibration
identify central canal, horns, and anterior median fissure/posterior median sulcus on a drawing.
What types of nuclei are contained in various gray matter regions? IPN
interneurons
projection neurons
What are gray commissures?
part of spinal area X
Identify the three columns of the white matter on a drawing
What do these white matter columns contain?
axon tracts related to specific functions
What are ascending tracts and descending tracts?
ascending tracts carry sensory information from the body, like pain
Descending tracts carry motor information, like instructions to move the arm
What are ascending tracts and descending tracts?
ascending tracts carry sensory information from the body, like pain
Descending tracts carry motor information, like instructions to move the arm
How many spinal nerves are connected to each segment of the spinal cord?
31 pairs
What are the three connective tissue layers around each nerve? EPE
endoneurium
perineurium
epineurium
What are the functional differences between the dorsal and ventral roots of a spinal nerve?
dorsal roots carry afferent sensory axons
ventral roots carry efferent motor axons
What is a dermatome, and what is the clinical significance of dermatomes?
areas of skin on your body that rely on specific nerve connections on your spine
what is the clinical significance of dermatomes?
help a healthcare provider detect and diagnose conditions or problems affecting your spine, spinal cord or spinal nerves
What is a nerve plexus?
a bundle of intersecting nerves
What regions of the body do the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexuses innervate?
cervical plexus = head, neck and shoulders
brachial plexus = chest, shoulders, upper arms, forearms, and hands
lumbar plexus = back, abdomen, groin, thighs, knees, and calves
sacral plexus = pelvis, buttocks, genitals, thighs, calves, and feet
What is a reflex?
an involuntary and nearly instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus
What are some examples of peripheral effectors?
muscles and glands
What is a reflex arc/what are the steps of a reflex arc? RSIME
What is the general effect of a reflex response?
Coughing, yawning and blinking of eyes
What is the main difference between a spinal and a cranial reflex?
Cranial directly from the brain
Spinal from the spin
How many ventricles are there in the brain?
Where are they located?
How many ventricles are there in the brain?
1 in each cerebral hemisphere
3rd ventricle in the diencephalon
4th hindbrain
What separates the two lateral ventricles?
What are they filled with?
lined by ependyma
filled with CSF
What things are present that protect the brain?
Three layers of membranes known as meninges
What are the three cranial meninges?
pia mater
arachnoid
dura mater
Where is cerebrospinal fluid made?
What are its functions?
located within the ventricles of the brain
help cushion them from injury and provide nutrients
What is the purpose of the blood-brain barrier, and what forms it?
shield the brain from toxic substances
Which brain region is continuous with the spinal cord (just superior to the spinal cord)?
Medulla Oblongata
What are the three groups of nuclei contained in the medulla oblongata? MPS
main motor nucleus
parasympathetic nucleus
sensory nucleus
What does the pons do?
brainstem, a structure that links your brain to your spinal cord.
It handles unconscious processes and jobs, such as your sleep-wake cycle and breathing
What does the cerebellum do?
controls balance for walking and standing, and other complex motor functions
What does the midbrain control?
motor movement and reflexes
What is the corpora quadrigemina, and where is it contained?
the four collicul
two inferior, two superior
located on the tectum of the dorsal aspect of the midbrain
What are the parts of the corpora quadrigemina, and what do the different parts do?
the four collicul
two inferior, two superior
reflex centers involving vision and hearing
What are the three parts of the diencephalon? P123
prosomere 3
prosomere 2
prosomere 1
Where is the pineal gland located, and what is the purpose of the pineal gland?
in the middle of the human brain
body’s melatonin production
Where is the thalamus, and what it its function?
in the middle of your brain
hearing, taste, sight and touch
from your body to your brain
Functions of the hypothalamus
area of the brain that produces hormones
Body temperature
Heart rate
Hunger
Mood
Which brain areas are part of the limbic system? AHTHBC
amygdala
hippocampus
thalamus
hypothalamus
basal ganglia
cingulate gyrus
What are some functions of the limbic system?
emotion
behaviour
motivation
long-term memory
What are the functions of the amygdala and the hippocampus?
amygdala = input and processing of emotion
hippocampus = declarative or episodic memory
Where is the gray and white matter located in the cerebrum?
white matter is found in the inner layer of the cortex
gray matter in the spinal cord
Which is the longitudinal fissure and the cerebral cortex?
What is the purpose of the gyri?
segregate brain areas and enhance the surface area and cognitive abilities of the brain
What are the three categories of axons in white matter? CAP fibers
What does each category do?
commissural fibers - connect the corresponding regions of the two hemispheres within each hemisphere
association fibers - connect the various cortical regions
projection fiber - connect the cortex and lower parts of the brain
What are the basal nuclei (ganglia)?
What do they do?
a group of subcortical nuclei responsible primarily for motor control
motor learning, executive functions and behaviors, and emotions
What separates the motor and sensory regions of the cerebral cortex?
The central sulcus
Where is the precentral gyrus?
frontal lobe
Where is the postcentral gyrus
parietal lobes between the central sulcus and postcentral sulcus
Where are the visual cortex, the auditory cortex, the olfactory cortex, and the gustatory cortex?
What is the importance of Wernicke’s area, Broca’s area, and the prefrontal cortex?
production and comprehension of speech
What are the specializations of each brain hemisphere?
right hemisphere excels at more holistic and coarse processing of information
left excels at more analytic and fine-grained processing of information
What does an EEG do?
measure the electrical activity of the brain
What are the four types of brain waves that may be observed, and what do they indicate? BATD
beta - Anxiety dominant, active, external attention, relaxed
alpha - Very relaxed, passive attention
theta - Deeply relaxed, inward focused
delta - Sleep
Be able to name the cranial nerves in order (by number and name)
olfactory nerve
optic nerve
oculomotor nerve
trochlear nerve
trigeminal nerve
abducens nerve
facial nerve
vestibulocochlear nerve
glossopharyngeal nerve
vagus nerve
accessory nerve
hypoglossal nerve
Overall, what does the ANS do?
regulates heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal
Basic difference between sympathetic and parasympathetic NS?
sympathetic nervous system controls your body’s “fight or flight”
parasympathetic nervous system helps to control your body’s response during times of rest
What’s the difference between the somatic and the autonomic nervous systems?
somatic nervous system consists of nerves that go to the skin and muscles and is involved in conscious activities
autonomic nervous system consists of nerves that connect the CNS to the visceral organs such as the heart
Which neurotransmitters are involved in sympathetic activation? NEA
norepinephrine
epinephrine
acetylcholine
Which cranial nerves have preganglionic fibers associated with the parasympathetic NS?
3, 7, 9, and 10
What makes a sense “special” vs. not special?
the senses that have organs specifically devoted to them
What is the purpose of the eyelids?
Protection and lubrication
What is the purpose of the eyelashes?
dust catchers, protecting the eye from debris that can obstruct vision or cause infection or injury
What/where are the tarsal glands?
the inner surfaces of the eyelids, between the tarsi and conjunctiva
produce meibum, an oily substance that prevents evaporation of the eye’s tear film
What is the conjunctiva?
What does it produce, and for what reason?
the clear, thin membrane that covers part of the front surface of the eye
production of mucus and tears.
What is the cornea, where is it, and what does it do?
The transparent part of the eye that covers the iris and the pupil and allows light to enter the inside
What is the purpose of the lacrimal apparatus?
makes new tears and drains old ones out of your eyes
What are the structures of the lacrimal apparatus? ALLN
acrimal glands
lacrimal canaliculi
lacrimal sac
nasolacrimal duc
What is the purpose of tears?
keep your eyes wet and smooth, and help focus light so you can see clearly
What is contained in tears?
salt, fatty oils, and over 1,500 different proteins
What is the outermost layer of the eye, and what does it consist of?
the sclera (the white of the eye)
the cornea (the clear dome at the front of the eye)
What is the purpose of the fibrous layer of the eye?
Protects the eyeball and maintains its shape
What are the components of the vascular layer of the eye? ICC
What is it’s function?
iris
ciliary body
choroid
oxygen supply and nutrition for the eye
What happens when pupillary muscles contract?
increases (dilates) pupil size
What controls the pupillary muscles?
parasympathetic nervous system
where is the ciliary body?
What does it do?
behind the iris
makes the clear fluid that fills the space between the cornea and the iris
What/where is the choroid?
What does it do?
middle layer of the wall of the eye, between the sclera and the retina
bring oxygen and nutrients to the eye
What are the components of the inner layer of the eye?
the retina
What are the two types of photoreceptors?
What eye structure are they located in?
rods and cones
the retina
What are the two types of photoreceptors?
What eye structure are they located in?
rods and cones
the retina
How do the two photoreceptors differ in function?
Rod cells are highly sensitive to light and function in nightvision
cone cells are wide spectrum of light photons and colour vision
Why don’t we notice our blind spot?
our brain can usually fill in the information that we are missing based on the other things around the blind spot
What divides the eye into anterior and posterior cavities?
The lens
Describe the circulation of aqueous humor.
What is the purpose of the fluid pressure in the eye?
provides nutrition to the eye, as well as maintains the eye in a pressurized state
measurement of the fluid pressure in your aqueous humor
Where is the lens?
behind the iris
What holds lens in place? What is the purpose of the lens, and what allows it to do this?
small tissue strands or fibres (zonules) extending from the inner wall of the eye
How does astigmatism happen?
when your cornea or lens has a different shape than normal
