Lecture Exam 1: Flashcards
Anatomy
focus on the form and structur
physiology
focuses on the mechanisms and functions of these structures.
Gross/Macroscopic Anatomy
structures can be seen with the unaided eye
Microscopic Anatomy
structures seen with the use of a microscope
Regional Anatomy
deals with structures in a define region
Dissection
the action of dissecting a body or plant to study its internal parts.
Comparative Anatomy
The studies of differences and similarities between different things. How is comparative anatomy evidence for evolution
Histology
study of tissues (
Cystology
study of cells
Cellular Physiology
study of cell function
Systemic Physiology
study of organ systems—how different organs of a system work together—how different organ systems work together
Pathophysiology
study of the effects of disease on organ or systems function
Pathological Anatomy
the study of structural changes in the body caused by disease. It is actually the way a part of the body changes when affected by a disease
Organization of Life smallest to largest:
atoms - Molecules -Macromolecules-Organelles-Cells-Tissues-Organs-Organ Systems- Organism
Atoms
smallest units of matter
Molecules
two or more atoms joined together
Macromolecules
large molecules (proteins-fats-DNA)
Cells
the basic structural and functional units of an organism (epithelial cell-muscle cell)
Tissue
group of cells that work together to perform a specific (stratified squamous-areolar)
Organ
structures that are composed of two or more different types of tissue (stomach-liver)
Organ System
—related organs that have a common function (cardiovascular system-nervous system)
Cardiovascular System (circulatory system—blood-heart-blood vessels)
Circulates oxygen and carbon dioxide, nutrients (glucose and amino acids), wastes (urea and uric acid), hormones and other material throughout body
Respiratory System (lungs and trachea)
Gas exchange—oxygen into the body carbon dioxide out of the body—also involved in sound production and pH balance
digestive System
(stomach and small intestine)
o Ingestion-digestion-absorption-excretion
What do Carbohydrates convert into
monosaccharides
What do fats convert into
fatty acids and monoglycerides
What do proteins convert into
amino acids
Urinary System
(kidneys—urinary bladder)
o Excretes wastes and excess material (urea—uric acid—creatinine
immune System/Lymphatic
o Protect against foreign substances (WBCs—antibodies)
Integumentary System
(skin—hair—nails)
o Physical—Chemical—Biological barrier which helps keeps substances out of or in the body—also involved with temperature regulation
Skeletal and Muscular Systems (skeletomuscular system)
o Work together to move the body—muscles move bones around joints
Reproductive System
o Creates life
Nervous and Endocrine Systems
o Control systems of the body; nervous system uses electrical impulses and the endocrine system uses hormones (neuroendocrine)
Equilibrium
balance
Dynamic Equilibrium
—conditions fluctuate around a set point
Set Point
average value
Receptor
monitors change (baroreceptors—chemoreceptors)
o Afferent pathway (input)
carries signal to control center (nerve—vagus—femoral)
o Control Center
integrates the information (CNS—brain and spinal cord)
o Efferent pathway (output)
carries signal to effector (nerve—vagus—femoral)
o Effector
carries out the response (organ—heart—biceps brachii
Negative Feedback System (Loop)
- reverse a change
Positive Feedback System (Loop)
- strengthen or reinforce a change (amplification)
Homeostatic Control Mechanism Example
(positive feedback loop—labor)
o Receptor—stretch receptors in the uterus—cervix—vaginal canal are stimulated
o Afferent Pathway—nerve signals to the brain from stretch receptors in the uterus—cervix—vaginal canal
o Control Center—brain—hypothalamus
o Afferent Pathway—release of oxytocin which travels to the effector—uterus
o Effector—uterus—contraction of the uterus
Metabolism
sum of all the chemical processes that occurred in the body
o Anabolism
building up of complex chemical substances
o Catabolism
breaking down of complex chemical substances
Responsiveness
ability to detect and respond to change
Differentiation—
unspecialized to specialized (hemocytoblasts becomes different blood cells—simple squamous versus stratified squamous
What can Homeostatissis be impacted by
air, food, water, behavior and genetics
Disorder
abnormality of structure or function
o Disease
—more specific term for an illness associated with certain signs and symptoms
Symptoms
subjective changes (nausea—anxiety)
§ Signs
—objective changes (swelling—fever)
o Epidemiology
—when, why, where and how diseases occur and are transmitted
o Pharmacology
—study of the effects and uses of drugs in the treatment o disease
o Diagnosis
—distinguishing one disorder or disease from another
Physical examination
Ø Inspection—palpation—auscultation—percussion
Ø Vital signs—temperature—pulse—respiration rate—blood pressure
Ø Lab tests—urinalysis—blood
…
Element
—stable substances that can’t be broken down into anything simpler
body elements
Carbon (C)
o Hydrogen (H)
o Nitrogen (N)
o Oxygen (O)
o Phosphorus (P)
o Calcium (Ca)
o Potassium (K)
o Sodium (Na)
o Chlorine (Cl)
o Magnesium (Mg)
o Iron (Fe)
o Sulfur (S
Ions
polar (charged)their protons and electrons are not equal, they have either lost or gained electrons
o Cation—has a positive charge, it has lost electrons
o Anion—has a negative charge, it has gained electrons
Compound
contains atoms of two or more different elements (H2O)
o Molecule
two or more atoms share electrons, they can be the same kind of atoms or different (O2) or (H2O)
Ionic Bonds
(electrical attraction between opposite charges)
o Na+ Cl-→ NaCl (ionic bonds found in teeth and bones)
Covalent Bonds
two or more atoms share electrons, most common chemical bond in the body (single-double-triple)
o Nonpolar
§ Equal sharing of electrons→ H2 O2 N2 CH4
o Polar
§ Unequal sharing of electrons→ H2O→ hydrogen bonds
Water
o Human body is 60% water, unique structure and attraction between water molecules due to the polar covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds
§ Cohesion—tendency of like particles to stick together
§ Surface Tension—the difficulty of stretching or breaking the surface of a liquid (surface tension is an important factor in respiration)
§ Adhesion—tendency of one substance to cling to another substance
§ Resists Temperature Changes→ absorb heat/retain heat (coolant)
§ Universal Solvent (dissociates ionic bonds)
§ Solid form is less dense then liquid form
Metabolism
sum of all chemical reactions that occur in the body
Energy
capacity to do work
o Potential energy
→ stored energy—molecules store energy in their chemical bonds (water behind a dam→ plasma membrane)
o Kinetic Energy
molecules move or vibrate randomly (water moving through the dam→ solutes moving through the plasma membrane)
o Law of conservation of energy
→ energy is neither created or destroyed it is converted from one form to another
Factors that will influence chemical reactions
o Temperature→ increases movement and speed of matter→ ↑ reactions
o Concentration→ increased number of particles→ ↑ reactions
o Size→ increased number of collisions and reactions
o Catalysts (enzymes—proteins) lowers activation energy—hold reactants in a favorable position
Types of Reactions (exergonic-endergonic)
o Anabolic (synthesis reactions—dehydration synthesis)
§ A + B→ AB (glucose + glucose→ maltose)
o Catabolic (decomposition reactions—hydrolysis)
§ AB→ A + B (maltose→ glucose + glucose)
o Exchange (synthesis and decomposition)
§ AB + CD→ AD + CB (HCl + NaHCO3→ NaCl + H2CO3)
o Reversible
§ AC ↔ A + C (H2O + CO2 ↔ H2CO2 ↔ HCO3- + H+)
Acid-Base Balance
o Acid—release hydrogen ions H+
o Base—release hydroxide ions OH-
Buffer—resists large changes in pH
§ HCl + NaHCO3 → NaCl + H2CO3
§ NaOH + H2CO3 → NaHCO3 + H2O
Neutral
equal hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions H+ = OH
Organic Compounds (hydrocarbons) and body makeup
o Proteins (12-18%)numerous functions
o Lipids (18-25%) lipids have the most C-H bonds-they contain a lot of energy—saturated fats have the most C-H bonds
o Carbohydrates (2%) our bodies don’t store much carbohydrates
§ these macromolecules contain carbon and hydrogen, they are held together by covalent bonds which store a lot of energy
o Nucleic Acids (2%)
Inorganic
o Water (60%)
o Minerals (electrolytes-ions) (5%)
§ Na+, K+, Ca+2, PO43-
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
o 5 carbon (structural-nucleic acids)
§ Ribose (RNA)
§ Deoxyribose (DNA)
o 6 carbon (energy-chemical isomers→ same formula different arrangement)
§ Glucose
§ Galactose
§ Fructose
Dehydration Synthesis Reactions
→ pulls water out—Anabolic (enzymes)
Hydrolysis Reactions
→ adds water—Catabolic (enzymes and water)
Disaccharides
o Maltose (grain sugar) glucose + glucose
§ Maltase→ brush border enzyme BBE
o Sucrose (table sugar)
§ Sucrase→ brush border enzyme BBE
o Lactose (milk sugar)
§ Lactase→ brush border enzyme BBE
Polysaccharides
many sugars→ complex carbohydrates)
o Starch (amylose-found in plants→ bread-pasta-rice)
§ Starch is the storage form of carbohydrates in plants
o Cellulose (insoluble fiber-roughage-found in plants)
§ Can’t digest
o Glycogen (storage form of carbohydrates in humans)
§ Liver and Skeletal Muscle
Lipids Classes
o Fatty acids
o Triglycerides—
o Phospholipids
o Steroids
o Eicosanoids
Fatty acids
—long chains of carbon and hydrogen—used to synthesize triglycerides, phospholipids and ATP
Triglycerides
—3 fatty acids and a glycerol—protection, insulation and energy storage (diglycerides and monoglycerides)
Phospholipids
—major component of plasma membranes
Steroids
—hormones synthesized from cholesterol
Eicosanoids
—derived from arachidonic acid—subclasses include prostaglandins and leukotrienes
Characteristics/Functions of lipids
o Insoluble in water (hydrophobic)
o Secondary Source of Energy
o Structure (plasma membrane)
o Protection
o Insulation
o Communication (steroid hormones)