Lecture 9-11 Flashcards
What is imagery?
The “central pillar of applied sport psychology”
Do elite/more successful athletes use imagery more than non-elite less successful athletes?
Yes
Definition of imagery
Imagining yourself in a situation that mimics real life, feeling movements as an image
How does it mimic real experience?
By functional equivalence = shared central neural activity patterning (particularly motor areas)
In imagery what is perception without sensation?
Imagining senses like smell, sound, taste etc
Why does imagery work?
Increase motivation
Increases confidence
Increases focus
Enables learning
What is behavioural matching?
Motor imagery interventions should stimulate, as clearly as possible, all aspects of a participants’ execution situations; especially the sensation associated with relevant movements and their subsequent emotional impact
Implications for imagery use
Use imagery as a supplement for physical practice
Imagery can be used as a substitute for some amounts of physical practice when needed
Imagery should be matched as closely as possible to the actual skill-learning environment
What does PETTLEP stand for?
Physical Environment Task Timing Learning Emotion Perspective
Imagery - PETTLEP - Physical
Make the imagery experience match the physical experience as much as possible
‘Physical’ is the most important component and the one best supported by research
Imagery - PETTLEP- Environmental
Where is the imagery performed?
Imagery - PETTLEP - Task
Key components of the task need to be imaged
But these are specific to ability level and individual preferences
Imagery - PETTLEP - Timing
Most effective when it corresponds to actual movement time
Particularly when timing is an important element of the task
Imagery - PETTLEP - Learning
Imagery should change with learning and practice
As such, imagery content should match the current stage of learning
Imagery - PETTLEP - Emotion
Include appropriate emotions in imaging
Imaging inappropriateemotions may have a debilitative effect on subsequent performance
Imagery - PETTLEP - Perspective
Internal perspective:
- involves athletes seeing themselves from inside their body looking out.
External perspective:
- involves athletes seeing themselves from outside their body like on video
Imagery - PETTLEP - Persepctive research
Many athletes have a ‘natural’ perspective that they use, but will often switch depending upon the task/scenario being imaged
What has PETTLEP research found? (Smith et al 2007)
That sport-specific imagery group works the best
PETTLEP approach to rehabilitation imagery
2X2 analytical framework
Seeing ourself perform the skill
Strategy, routines, planning of what they’re doing
Seeing ourself achieve our goals
Try and control our emotions
Imagery function - cognitive specific
Skill development
Skill execution
What did Savoy (1996) find would happen if imagery was removed from training programmes?
That harmful effects may occur
What different functions can imagery have?
Cognitive specific Cognitive general Motivation specific Motivation general - arousal Motivation general - mastery
Imagery function - cognitive general
Strategy development
Strategy execution
imagery function - Motivational specific
Outcome
Process
Imagery function - motivational general - arousal
Excitement
Control
Relaxation
Imagery function - motivational general - mastery
Mental toughness
Focus
Confidence
Staying positive
What is imagery ability?
An individuals capability to form vivid, controllable images and retain them for sufficient time to effect the desired imagery rehearsal
What are the key dimensions of imagery ability?
Vividness Controllability Accuracy Duration Ease
Who tends to be better at imagery ability, young or old?
Young people
Definition of concentration?
A persons ability to exert deliberate mental effort on what is most important in any given situation
Definition of attention?
The taking possession of one out of what seems several simultaneously possible objects, it implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others
Definition of focus?
The phenomenon of attending to particular internal and external cues that positively or negatively influence athletic performance
What are four aspects of concentration?
Focusing on relevant environmental cues
Maintaining attentional focus
Maintaining situational awareness
Shifting attentional focus
Types of attention (look at slide 8 lecture 10 for diagram)
Broad narrow
External /\ | \/ Internal
Concentration grid research as a method of assessing focus
Not really relevant to sport
Better example of research is showing the footballers a short video and getting them to identify which striker is the first to ‘lose’ his marker
What are the principles of effective concentration?
Requires mental effort -> conscious focus on only one thought -> directed towards specific, relevant, & controllable actions -> future, uncontrollable, and irrelevant thought = loss of concentration-> can be effected by anxiety
What external distractions can cause you to “lose” (not lost just misdirected) your concentration?
Ambient noise, gamesmanship, unpredictable weather/surface conditions
What internal distractions can cause you to “lose” (not lost just misdirected) your concentration?
Worries, thinking about future/past and/or irrelevant feelings
Definition of selective attention
Where relevant information is filtered through into STM and irrelevant information is discarded
What is inattentional blindness?
When attention is diverted to another object or task, observers often fail to perceive an unexpected object even if it appears at fixation
What is change blindness?
Failing to notice large changes to objects or scenes from one view to the next, particularly if the objects are not the centre of interest in the scene
How can you measure concentration? (Psychometric approach)
Using the Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style (TAIS) inventory
What are the different scales for TAIS inventory?
Awareness External distractibility Analytical/conceptual Internal distractibility Actions/focussed Reduced flexibility
What does the awareness scale for TAIS inventory relate to?
Sensitivity to non-verbal and environmental cues
What does the external distractibility scale for TAIS inventory relate to?
Responsivity to task irrelevant external cues
What does the analytical/conceptual scale for TAIS inventory relate to?
Ability to think strategically, analyse, and plan
What does the internal distractibility scale for TAIS inventory relate to?
Distraction by feelings or thoughts
What does the action/focussed scale for TAIS inventory relate to?
Attention to detail, concern with quality
What does the reduced flexibility scale for TAIS inventory relate to?
Failure to shift attention to relevant cues
How can you measure concentration? (Neuroscientific approach)
Heart rate - decreases when we are concentrating
Electro-encephalography (EEG) - increase in alpha activity in left hemisphere when concentrating
Brain imaging - shift from verbally-based left hemisphere to visuospatially focused right hemisphere just prior to shooting performance
How can you measure concentration? (Dual task paradigms)
Pp perform two tasks simultaneously and compare performance under single-task conditions
If the performance is worse under dual-task conditions, then the two tasks must interfere with each other
What are some concentration strategies?
Simulation training
Self talk
Imagery
What is the simulation training strategy? (Concentration strategy)
Recreate competitive atmosphere in practice
Practice with competition-specific distractions
What is the self talk strategy? (Concentration strategy)
Staying focused on appropriate things (“eyes on the ball”)
Refocusing after distractions (“focus”)
What is the imagery strategy? (Concentration strategy)
Preview staying focused on different situations
Rehearse focusing after distractions
What is the relationship between video games and selective attention?
Research (Green and Bavelier 2003) has shown that video game players, tend to have better selective attention than non-video game players
Also that through the use of video games peoples attention improves
What is a pre performance routine?
A set pattern of physical and/or mental activities carried out immediately prior to performance with the purpose of aiding that performance
How can a pre-performance routine help with attentional control?
Diverts attention from task-irrelevant cues to task relevant-cues
What is the 5-step strategy for pre-performance routines?
Readying -> imaging -> focusing external attention -> executing with a quiet mind -> evaluating -> feedback for next attempt
With a pre-performance routine what is more important?
Consistent duration or
Consistent behaviours
Lonsdale & Tam (2007) showed that basketball players were 12% more successful with free throws if the pre-performance routine involves consistent behaviours
What is it called when someone underperforms due to pressure?
Choking
What is it called when someone becomes better under pressure?
Clutch
What is the definition of choking?
A significant decline in athletic performance under pressurised conditions
What conditions can lead to choking?
Physical changes
Attentional changes (mainly attentional (may lose focus of what we need to focus on and start thinking about the fact a scout is watching us))
What is the definition of clutch?
Any performance increment or superior performance that occurs under pressurised circumstances
Is clutch common?
It is very rare (so rare that analysis of statistics say that some people may just not choke because so few people show improvements under pressure)
What are the four key aspects of concentration?
Selective attention
Maintaining attentional focus
Situation awareness
Shifting attentional focus
What is the leadership perspective? (Leadership and group cohesion lecture)
Coach -> athlete
What is the relationship perspective? (Leadership and group cohesion lecture)
Coach athlete
What is the definition of the leadership perspective?
The behavioural process of influencing individuals and groups toward set goals
What is the definition of the relationship perspective?
The situation in which coaches’ and athletes’ emotions, thoughts, and behaviours are mutually and causally inter-connected
What are the qualities of a leader?
Providing direction
Motivating
Decision making
Giving feedback
What are the qualities of a manager?
Organising
Scheduling
Budgeting
Recruiting
What is a prescribed leader?
A leader appointed by someone of authority (a football manager)
What is an emergent leader?
Someone who emerges from within the group through hard work
What is a relationship-oriented leader?
Focus is on developing and maintaining good interpersonal relationships
What is a task-oriented leader?
Focus is on setting goals and getting the job done
When would a relationship-oriented leader be best?
Moderately-favourable conditions (going for promotion)
Highly-skilled players
When would a task-orientated leader be best?
Very-favourable or unfavourable conditions (relegation)
Less-skilled players
What is better? Relationship-oriented leaders / task-oriented leaders?
Depends on the situation?
Might need a bit of both
Look at Chelladurais multidimensional model of leadership in pe text book
7 parts, quite tricky this one, the more parts that agree, the better
What are the top five confidence enhancing techniques used by coaches?
- The coach acting confident
- Enhance performance through instruction drilling
- Set specific goals
- Encourage positive talk
- Verbally persuade
How do team captains who are high in confidence behave? (Fransen study)
Encourage teammates, reacted enthusiastically to successful shots, encouraging body language, positive language
How do team captains who are low in confidence behave? (Fransen study)
No encouragement to teammates, reacted angrily to unsuccessful shots, discouraging body language, demoralising language
What did Fransen find about how the overall level of confidence after the test session?
Those who had a high team confidence expression by team leader had significantly higher confidence
Compared to those with a low team confidence expression by team leader
What do Fransens findings tell us?
The level of perceived team confidence expressed by team leaders transfer to the confidence of team members
Team members adapt to the perceived confidence standards set by the team leader more when they identify more strongly with the team
What are some ethical issues in leadership, related to power and authority?
Sexual harassment
Pressure to conform to ideal weight and body image
Racial discrimination and other prejudices
What are some ethical issues in leadership, related to exploitation?
“Ticket to the big time”
Don’t really get it
What is a team?
A group of people who must interact with each other to accomplish shared objectives
What are parts of every successful team?
Collective sense of identity
Distinctive roles
Structured modes of communication
Norms
What are the theories of group development?
Linear theories
Cyclical theories
Pendular theories
LOOK IN PE GROUP
FOR GROUP STUFF
What are linear theories?
Forming Storming Morning Performing (Adjourning?)
What are cyclical theories?
Group starts
Group blossoms (where success is achieved) (people then move on to other challenges)
Group dies
What are pendular theories?
Orientation Differentiation and conflict Resolution and cohesion Differentiation and conflict Termination
What is cohesion?
A dynamic process, reflected in the tendency for a group to stick together and remain united in pursuit of its objectives and/or the satisfaction of member affective needs
What is task cohesion?
The degree to which group members work together to achieve common goals and objectives
What is task and social cohesion?
Reflects the interpersonal attraction among group members
What is the conceptual model of cohesion?
That group cohesion is affected by:
Environmental factors
Personal factors
Team factors
Leadership factors
What are environmental factors in the conceptual model of cohesion?
Size of group
Level of competition
Age
Proximity
What are personal factors in the conceptual model of cohesion?
Demographic attributes
Cognitions and motives
Behaviour
What are leadership factors in the conceptual model of cohesion?
Whether they are leadership-oriented or task-oriented
If they are clear, consistent, unambiguous -> leads to team goals, team tasks, individual roles
What are team factors in the conceptual model of cohesion?
Team stability and desire for success
Shared experiences
Collective efficacy and group productivity
What is leadership?
The behavioural process of influencing individuals and groups toward set goals
