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Brain & behaviour > Lecture 8 - Oestrogen, Testosterone & Anabolic Steroids > Flashcards

Lecture 8 - Oestrogen, Testosterone & Anabolic Steroids Flashcards

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1
Q

Define Hormone

A

Regulatory substance produced in an organism and transported in tissue fluids such as blood or sap to stimulate specific cells or tissues into action

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2
Q

What are the 2 main phases of hormones?

??????????

A

1st phase: Organisational

  • prenatally
  • some structures are different in brains or men/ women
2nd Phase: Activational
- may affect some behaviours
•Sexual
•emotional 
•Cognitive
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3
Q

How can androgens affect the foetus prenatally?

A

Can effect anatomy, social behaviour, sexual identity of developing foetus
- can sometimes be subtle differences in androgen in the womb, can cause differences in how people turn out

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4
Q

By default what are we?

A

By default we are female, but addition of testosterone causes us to become males

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5
Q

Outline Cogential Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)

A

Girls are like boys
- Biologically are girls, but differences in androgen causes:
•Enlarged clitoris, perhaps fused labia
•More likely to be tom-boys
•More aggressive
• Draw masculine motives
•Almost 40% bi or homosexual (compared to 10% control)

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6
Q

Summarise CAH vs AI

A

Congential Andrenal Hyperplasia
- biological Girls are socially like boys

Androgen Insensitivity
- biological boys are physically like girls

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7
Q

What are the 3 biological theories about what causes homosexuality?
??????????

A
  1. Maternal Stress
  2. Older brother effect
  3. Heridity
  • Overall, are really up in the air, not agreed upon
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8
Q

Outline the maternal stress theory as a biological theory about what causes homosexuality
??????????

A

Studies in rats found:
- If mother is stressed, can result in homosexual offspring, or the offspring could act more like females - e.g. raising bottom towards male
- maternal stress might cause subtle differences in androgen, which might cause homosexuality
X - how should a male rat behave though?
X - can you compare this to humans

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9
Q

Outline the Older brother effect as a biological theory about what causes homosexuality
??????????

A
  • The more older brothers you have, the higher chance of being homosexual
  • Is this due to change, or due to androgen changes as a mother has more offspinrg - due to immune system
    X - has only been applied to males
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10
Q

Outline the Heridity as a biological theory about what causes homosexuality
??????????
*******

A

3X more frequent in MZ twins

- not clear why this is but it clearly runs in family

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11
Q

Outline Androgen Insensitivity

A 
Boys develop as girls
- female external gentialia, but no internal mechanism
- they have testes, not uterus/ tubes
•Very feminine
•Average Sex drive
•Mostly attracted to opposite sex

Genetic mutation prevents foetus from androgen receptor working
- boys cant take in androgens prenatally, so externally they develop as girls. Cant pick up testosterone in the womb

Might not be able to tell this until puberty hits and you start trying to reproduce ourself or you dont have periods. Cant really tell until activation phase

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12
Q

What are the 4 organisational brain differences between men and women?
??????????
******

A

Women have:

  1. Slightly smaller brains
  2. Thicker Corpus callosum
  3. More adaptable brains - one area/ opposite hemisphere can take over function pretty easily
  4. Some regions in telencephalon/ diencephalon are different
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13
Q

What are the brain differences in those with differences in androgen levels
??????????
******

A

Differences in degree of prenatal androgen exposure (androgenisation) may result in subtle brain structure differences:

  1. Suprachiasmic nucleus - larger in homosexuals
  2. Sexually Dimorphic Nucleus - much bigger in men
  3. Anterior Commissure (connects temporal lobes - associated w/ pain) varys in thickness between genders
  4. Bed nuclues of Stria Terminalis (BNST) - bigger in men
    - male transexuals have same size as womens
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14
Q

During puberty, What does Hypothalamus do?

A
  1. Releases GNRH
  2. This stimulates Pituitary Gland to secrete LH and FSH
  3. LH and FSH
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15
Q

What does GNRH stand for?

A

Gonadotrophin Releasing Hormone

- tells pituitary to secrete LH/ FSH

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16
Q

What does LH/ FSH stand for?

A

LH = Luteinizing hormone
FSH = Follicle stimulating hormone
- these stimulate the body to make the changes during puberty

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17
Q

What do Gonads do during Puberty?

A

Ovaries: release oestrogen
- breasts, fat distribution, matures external genitalia

Testes: release testosterone
- body hair, deeper voice, hairline changes, muscle growth, matures external genitalia

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18
Q

Where does testosterone in females come from?

??????????

A

Females do have testosterone but it comes from the adrenal cortex

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19
Q

Outline Cognitive differences in males and females

??????????

A

On average

Men:
• Better at spatial tasks (e.g. imaginally rotating a figure), perception of vertical/ horizontal, maths reasoning, spatio-motor targetting ability

Women:
•Better at verbal fluency (generating), perceptual speed, verbal/ item memory, some fine motor skills

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20
Q

Outline Slabbekoorn (1999) findings about transsexuals

A

Female-to-male TS’s - Given testosterone

  • Brings about beard/ low voice
  • also research suggesting they develop better visuospatial skills, and worse verbal fluency

Male-to-female TS’s - Given estrogen/ anti-androgen

  • grew breasts, facial hair becomes finer/ softer
  • but not impact on cognitive skills
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21
Q

Outline Hormones during female sexual behaviour

A
  1. Oestrogen peaks - during ovulation
    - more likely to initiate sex as you want to get pregnant then
    - androgens can amplify effect estrogens
  2. Oxytocin (pituitary) - released during orgasm
    - May affect interest in sex (cuddle after)
    - associated with milk ejection (caused by hormone: prolactin)
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22
Q

Outline Hormones during male sexual behaviour

A
  1. Prolactin & Oxytocin released after ejaculation, but this inhibits desire, interest in cuddling, re-initate sex etc
  2. High levels of testosterone -> increased interest, fantasy in sex
    - and vice versa: thinking about sex increases testosterone
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23
Q

How do men and women differ in hormone release during sexual behaviours

A

Same hormones - prolactin and oxytocin

- have different impact on males and females during sex

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24
Q

Outline aggression in males - testosterone

A
  • Testosterone associated with aggression
  • men more aggressive than girls, and do have higher levels of testosterone than girls. Is this due to socialisation not testosterone though?
  • An increase in testosterone during puberty is associated with an increase in aggression
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25
Q

Whats been found about aggression, testosterone and sex offenders

A

Castration of sex offenders decreases drive and aggressive sex attacks
- X - inconclusive, is this due to testosterone or other treatment they have had

26
Q

Whats been found about aggression, testosterone and prison

A

In prisons, high testosterone associated with high aggression
X - is it not the environment causing this? - need to be aggressive to survive prisons

27
Q

Whats been found about aggression, testosterone and winning/ losing

A

When you lose a game - levels of testosterone drop

When you win the game - you still have high levels of aggression

28
Q

Whats been found about aggression, testosterone and Body builders

A

Body builders taking steroids associated with an increase in aggression

29
Q

Whats been found about aggression, testosterone and Hypogonadal men

A

When given testosterone treatment, although they had a slight increase in irritability, there was no increase in aggression

30
Q

What is Hypogondal men?

A
  • When men are testosterone deficient - testes arent working very well or not at all
  • given testosterone
31
Q

What are the two types of responses within emotions

A
  1. Behavioural Response - feelings
    - Universally recognised
    - are they innate or learned?
  2. Physiological response
    - Autonomic response - SNS
    - sympathetic branch is impacted by emotions
    - Hormonal response - signals sent to adrenals, which then release adrenaline/ steroids - these stimulate physiological changes - e.g. more blood flow to muscle and more glucose available
32
Q

Outline the hormonal response during fight/ flight

*******

A
  1. Hypothalamus
  2. Tells pituitary gland to produce hormones
  3. tells Adrenal Medulla to release norepinephrine and epinephrine
  4. Feedback to hypothalamus, for regulation
33
Q

Do norepinephrine and epinephrine have precursors?

A

No they dont, they are just immediately released in response to a stimuli
- no precursors/ instructions

34
Q

What can long term periods of cortisol do to the hippocampus?
*******

A

High levels of cortisol for a long time can causes:
•Impairment on hippocampus dependent memory tasks
•14% reduction in hippocampal volume

35
Q

How is the Adrenal Medulla organised?

A

Its a very well organised structure, because it needs to have a very quick response

  • different areas devoted to different hormones, none of them have precursors and have to respond immediately - activated the ANS and the brain
  • Cortisol is produced in Zona Fasciculata
36
Q

Which part of the Adrenal Medulla produces Cortisol?

A

It’s produced in the Zona Fasciculata

37
Q

What effects does Testosterone have on the body?
??????????
******

A
  1. Muscle - increase strength/ volume
  2. Male sexual organs - production of sperm and growth
  3. Body hair
  4. Bone marrow
  5. Decrease fat mass
  6. Renal system - red blood cell production
  7. . CNS - libido, agression, cognition
38
Q

What do kidneys and liver do to testosterone

A

They break down testosterone, so having to break down lots of fake testosterone can cause lots of issues - for instance, cancers

39
Q

How do anabolic steroids work?

A

They mimic the effects of testosterone and bind to androgen receptors
- they are synthetic testosterone

40
Q

What are androgenic effects, if you have an increase in testosterone
??????????
*******

A 
If you have an increase in testosterone:
•Deeper voice
•Increased Libido
•Sleep problems
• Hypogonadism (testicular atrophy) - might reduced amount of testosterone produced, might also cause erectile dysfunction
• Acne, hair growth
41
Q

What are anabolic effects

******

A

They are synthetic testosterone
•Accelerate bone growth (can use with kids)
•Increase muscle mass
•Cardiovascular effects - cardiac mass increase, arrhytmia, increase BP
•Can also effect kidney/ liver - where TT is broken down
•From training muscles: promote o2 delivery to tissue

42
Q

How/ why does Anabolics increase muscle mass?

*******

A
  • Via hypertrophy
  • they simulate protein synthesis, this causes:
    •Tissue repair
    •More force and speed of contraction
  • Increases muscle mass but also makes them able to contract quicker and with more force
43
Q

How does anabolics fool the feedback system?

A

Hypothalamus is constantly getting feedback about how much TT is in the body,

  • but lots of synthetic TT will make the hypothalamus think you’ve got a lot
  • So hypothalamus wont tell pituitary to release LH/ FSH, so testes wont produce any TT
  • this causes hypogandism and testicular atrophy - wear away inside because they are not producing anything
  • possibility they can lose function of testes forever
44
Q

How should the feedback system normally work

A

Hypothalamus is constantly getting feedback about how much TT is in the body

  • if we need more, the Hypothalamus will tell the Pituitary to tell the testes to produce more TT
    1. Hypothalamus
    2. Tells Pituitary to release LH/ FSH
    3. This tells the Testes to produce more TT
  1. Hypothalamus then gets feedback about how much there is now, and says: “okay thats enough we’re good”
45
Q

What clinical issues can Anabolic steroids be used for?

******

A

Can be used clinically

  • for cancer, aids - muscle wasting (cachexia) - steroids help rebuild muscle
  • Burns etc - steroids help build body back up
46
Q

What are physical risks of taking/ abusing steroids for non-clinical reasons
******

A
  • Heart attack/ stroke
  • Kidney/ liver issues
  • Problems with needles - Hiv/ Hepatitis
  • Testicular dysfunction/ atrophy
47
Q

What are psychiatric risks of taking/ abusing steroids for non-clinical reasons
******

A
  • Anxiety
  • Depression
  • Mania
  • Aggression
  • Paranoia
  • Psychosis
  • Distractability
  • Confusion
  • Amnesia
  • Addiction to the steroids
48
Q

What are the opioid related risks of taking/ abusing steroids for non-clinical reasons
******

A
  • On an EEG reaction in the brain to anabolics looks the exact same as amphetamines
  • Increases sensitivity to:
    •Opioid narcotics
    • Central nervous stimulants
  • co-morbidity of use of amphetamines/ opioids
49
Q

What is law around anabolics?

A
  • They are illegal
  • banned in 1974
  • 1 in 1 million use them illegaly (without prescription)
  • debate because you can accidentally take a precursor to this
50
Q

Who are most likely to take them?

A
  1. Bodybuilders/ Athletes
    - in a sport where weight and appearance matter
  2. Those with Low self-esteem
    - related to self-worth/ identity
  3. Eating disorders and substance abuse is often comorbid
51
Q

What did Emmelot-Vonk (2008) find about hypogonadal men

??????????

A
  • When healthy males given synthetic testosterone, they got boosted memory
  • But hypogonadal men didnt have this benefit
52
Q

What did Holland (2011) say about hypogonadal men?

??????????

A

Hypogonadal men (TT deficient from atrophic testes) may be less likely to benefit from TT

53
Q

What did Vaughan (2007) find about Hypogonadal men?

??????????

A
  • Hypogonadal men didnt get cognitive benefit from TT supplements, but healthy did
54
Q

What did Page (2005) find about Hypogonadal men

??????????

A
  • Found synthetic TT did actually help someone
  • with Timed functional performance, handgrip strength etc
  • depends on length and severity of case as to the effects of synthetic TT
55
Q

Outline the case of Caster Semenya

A
  • Tested for her gender
  • She says shes got a DSD - disorder of sexual development, but its not clear
  • Prenatally, she had differing levels of Androgen, but she hasnt specified what it is - might be CAH
  • makes sense as she looks like a man, and is a lesbian - matches the profile of a CAH patient
56
Q

How can TT be converted into Oestradiol

*******SERTOLI

A

TT can be converted into a type of Oestrogen, called oestradiol, this can happen in 2 places:

  1. in the brain
  2. In Sertoli cells (in testes) - this directs spermatogenesis

This process is under the control of the enzyme Aromatase

57
Q

How does genotypes effect androgens?

A
  • Genotypes get summarised as “CYP Enzymes” - this is your genotype
  • Our genotype influences how we convert androgens in the body
  • Certain genotypes mean you are more or less likely to convert androgens into Catechol estrogens
58
Q

What are catechol estrogens and what do they do?

A
  • Depending on genotype, effects whether or not you convert Androgens into catechol estrogens
  • Catechol estrogens sit on the COMT receptor
  • This imapcts how Da, NEP and EP affect how the brain is behaving and how much NT is available
  • This can impact many things - depression, psychosis, cognitive functions
59
Q

Whats the COMT receptor

A

COMT is to do with breaking down and cleaning up excess NT’s

  • they wok on the Catechlomines - DA, NEP and EP
  • If catechol estrogens sit on the COMT receptor, it cannot clean up excess NT as well, more NT is available
  • if you dont break these down it can cause Oxydated Stress - which can cause DNA damage
60
Q

What did Jacobs and D’esposito (2011) say about Oestrogen and COMT and stuff
???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????

A
  1. Oestrogen-Dopamine interaction in PFC during working memory is linked to variations in COMT gene
    - COMT gene influences how you break down Da
  2. COMT Val (COMT variation) women perform poorely with low estrogen, and better with high estrogen
    - COMT Met (Different variation) do the opposite
  3. Oestrogens effect on Cognitive performance is either beneficial or deterimental depending on COMT genotype
    - effect of high or low COMT activity is different between people
  4. Interaction between where you are in the cycle and cognitive abilities -depends on genes
    - link between hormones and cognitive functioning - this can vary based on genes, and where you are in the cycle
61
Q

How else can Estrogens be beneficial for brain function
??????????
*******

A

They can:

  1. Stimulate Cerebral Blood flow and glucose uptake
  2. Stimulate branching dendrites
  3. Protect again oxidative stress
  4. Influences neuronal death/ survial/ function
  5. Modulates NT release and receptors
62
Q

Outline Cherrier et al (2005)

A

Looked at TT, converting to Estrodial and Aromatase
- Older men (50-90) were given TT weekly

Condition 1:

  • given 100mg TT weekly
  • found: estrodial increased
  • led to an 81% increase in verbal memory
  • spatial tasks improvement

Condition 2:

  • Given TT and Anastrozole (something that inhibits Aromotase)
  • Found Estrodial was reduced
  • this caused a 50% reduction in verbal memory
  • Spatial tasks improvement

Conclusion: Verbal memory inmprovement depends on Estrodial (E2) and this depends on Aromatase
- spatial task improvement confirms TT is involved in Spatial tasks

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