Lecture 8

Question 1

Define emotions

Answer 1

Emotions: refer to subjective feelings accompanied by physiological changes, cognitive thoughts, and desire to take action. They play a crucial role in human experience, influencing behaviour and interpersonal relationship

Question 2

Define features that accompany emotions

Answer 2

Features accompanying emotions

Physical changes: such as heart and breathing rates, hormone levels

Cognitions/thoughts: cognitive processes related to the emotion

Desire to take actions: emotions often prompt a desire to approach, fight, flee, or take specific actions

Question 3

What are different ways that we can quantify emotions?

Answer 3

Quantifying emotions: various methods are used to quantity emotions including:

Facial expression measurement: using systems like Ekman’s facial action coding system (FACS), adapted for infants (Baby FACS). This method relies on facial expressions to assess emotional states

Vocal or behavioural/body movement measures: observing behaviours such as squealing, crying, or specific body movements associated with different emotions

Physiological components: measuring physiological changes like heart rate, which can indicate emotional states

Question 4

What are each of their limitations and why is it challenging to classify infant emotions?

Answer 4

Limited and challenges:
Subjectivity: interpreting emotional expressions can be subjective
Context dependence: the same facial expression or behaviour may convey different emotions in different contexts
Limited expressive repertoire in infants: infants may have a limited range of facial expressions, making it challenging to classify their emotions accurately

Challenges in classifying infant emotions:
Limited expressive communication: infants may express emotions through limited facial expressions and behaviours
Lack of verbal expression: infants cannot verbally communicate their emotions
Contextual ambiguity: similar behaviours may represent different emotions depending on the context

Question 5

Which is the most common? (emotion)

Answer 5

Facial expression measurement, such as Baby FACS, is a common method for quantifying infant emotions. However, due to the challenges mentioned, researchers often use a combination of methods to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the infant emotions

Question 6

Which kind of emotions can be observed at birth?

Answer 6

Emotions at birth:
At birth, infants can exhibit some basic emotions, including generalized distress. However, the range of emotions expressed is limited compared to later stages of development

Question 7

What are social smiles and when do they develop

Answer 7

Social smiles:
Social smiles, which are smiles directed towards others, typically emerge around 6 to 10 weeks of age. Unlike reflex smiles that might occur earlier, social smiles are intentional and responsive to social stimuli, such as interactions with caregivers

Question 8

Which emotions are particularly difficult to distinguish from one another

Answer 8

Emotions difficult to distinguish:
In the early stages, distinguishing between different negative emotions can be challenging. For example, it may be difficult to identify specific expressions for sadness, disgust, fear, or anger in very young infants

Question 9

Which emotions are experientially connected?

Answer 9

Experientially connected emotions:
Emotions like happiness and surprise or happiness and interest can be experientially connected. For instance, infants around 3 months of age may exhibit mixed emotions, showing happiness along with surprise or interest. The boundaries between certain emotions may not be as clear in early developmental stages

Question 10

Describing evidence that infants’ respond to others’ emotions, this can be connected to Lecture 7 as well.

Answer 10

Infants responding to other’s emotion:
Infants demonstrate an early ability to respond to others’ emotions, and this is often observed through their capacity for social referencing. Social referencing refers to the ability to seek information from the emotional expressions of others in uncertain or ambiguous situations. Infants may look to their caregivers for cues on how to interpret and respond to novel stimuli

Question 11

What environmental factors influence how children attend to ambiguous anger?

Answer 11

Environmental factors influencing attention to ambiguous anger
The attention to ambiguous anger in children can be influenced by various environmental factors, including:
Caregiver expressiveness:The way caregivers express emotions can impact how infants attend to ambiguous anger. If caregivers are consistently expressive in their display of anger, infants may become more attuned to this emotion

Cultural norms: Cultural norms regarding the expression of emotions play a role. In some cultures, anger may be expressed more openly, while in others, it might be suppressed. Children growing up in different cultural contexts learn to attend to and interpret emotions based on these norms

Frequency of exposure to anger: The frequency with which a child is exposed to displays of anger in their environment, whether within the family or broader community, can shape their attention to and understanding of ambiguous anger

Question 12

How can this be adaptive in different environments?

Answer 12

Adaptive nature in different environment:
The ability to attend to ambiguous anger can be adaptive in various environments
High-threat environments:In environments where there is a higher prevalence of threatening situations or potential harm, being attuned to ambiguous anger expressions can serve as a protective mechanism. It allows children to quickly detect potential sources of danger or distress

Cultural adaptation: Adapting to the cultural norms of emotional expression enables children to navigate social interactions more effectively. Understanding and responding to ambiguous anger expressions according to cultural expectations contribute to social cohesion

Caregiver-child bond: Attending caregivers’ emotional cues, including ambiguous anger, strengthens the caregiver-child bond. It facilitates communication and responsiveness, promoting a sense of security for the child

Question 13

Explain Drummond et al.’s (2017) broken toy paradigm. Were they able to classify distinct guilt and shame responses? Why was this significant in this age group and what is the earliest age we can confidently disassociate these emotions? What evidence do they have from the broken toy paradigm to suggest these profiles represent guilt and shame? How did this relate to instrumental helping, empathic helping, and altruistic helping? Why did it only relate to differences in some of these types of helping?

Answer 13

Experiment design: Drummond and colleagues used a broken toy paradigm to investigate guilt and shame responses in 30-month-old children. The broken toy paradigm involved presenting children with a special toy that, unbeknownst to them, was rigged to fall apart when played with

Classifying guilt and shame responses: The researchers sought to classify distinct guilt and shame responses in the children. Guilt and shame are two distinct self-conscious emotions. Guilt is associated with a focus on one’s behaviour and a desire to make amends, while shame involves a focus on the self as fundamentally flawed

Significance of age groups: This age group (30-month-olds) is significant because it represents a developmental period when self-conscious emotions, including guilt and shame, are starting to emerge more clearly. Understanding these emotions in early childhood provides insights into the development of moral and emotional understanding

Earliest age to disassociate emotions: The ability to disassociate guilt and shame responses becomes more evident as children’s cognitive and emotional capacities develop. This study contributes to our understanding of when these distinctions can reliably be made

Evidence from broken toy paradigm: Drummond et al. collected evidence to suggest that distinct guilt and shame profiles could be identified in the children based on their responses to the broken toy. They looked at avoidance behaviours and other indicators associated with guilt and shame

Relationship to helping behaviours: The study explored how these guilt and shame profiles related to different types of helping behaviors: instrumental helping (goal-directed actions), empathic helping (responding to others’ emotional needs), and altruistic helping (sacrificing for others)

Results and helping behaviours: The researchers found that the guilt and shame profiles were related to differences in helping behaviours, but this relationship was specific to certain types of helping. For example, differences in the guilt and shame profiles were associated with variations in empathic helping tasks, where the child needed to identify and address another person’s emotional need

Implications: These findings have implications for understanding the early emergence of self-conscious emotions and their links to prosocial behaviours. The study highlights the complexity of the relationship between distinct emotional responses and different forms of helping behaviour in young children

Question 14

Describe the three, traditional categories of temperament.

Answer 14

Traditional categories of temperament:
Easy temperament:
Characteristics: display a positive mood, adaptability, regular rhythmicity, and mild to moderate intensity of reactions
Behavioural examples: these children are generally easygoing, adaptable to routines, and show a positive response to various situations

Difficult temperament:
Characteristics: exhibit a negative mood, irregular rhythmicity, low adaptability, amd high intensity of reactions
Behavioural examples: difficult-tempered children may be fussy, have irregular sleep patterns, and react strongly to changes in routines

Slow-to warm up temperament:
Characteristics: Initially show a mild, low-key reaction to new stimuli or situations and gradually warm up over time
Behavioural examples: These children may need more time to adjust to new people or environments but eventually become more comfortable

Question 15

What were the limitations of this categorical approach, and how has a dimensional approach improved the study of temperament?

Answer 15

Limitations of categorical approach
Oversimplification: The categorical approach oversimplifies the complexity of temperament by assigning individuals to discrete categories

Individual differences: It may not capture the full range of individual differences within each category

Dynamic nature: Children’s temperaments can change over time, and a static categorization may not capture this dynamic nature

Dimensional approach:
A dimensional approach to temperament considers temperament as a continuum rather than discrete categories. This approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of individual differences by considering multiple dimensions simultaneously

Question 16

Be able to define the negative reactivity, surgency, and orienting regulation

Answer 16

Three dimensions of dimensional approach:
Negative reactivity (emotionally):
Definition: The extent to which a child reacts with negative emotions such as fear, anger, or sadness to novel or challenging stimuli
Behavioural examples: Easily distressed, fearful, or prone to anger in unfamiliar situations

Surgency/Extraversion (positive affectivity):
Definition: reflects the level of positive affect, activity level, and approach behaviour
Behavioural examples: active, outgoing, and cheerful children with generally positive mood

Orienting regulation (effortful control):
Definition: involves the child’s ability to regulate attention and inhibit responses
Behavioural examples: children with good orienting regulation are better able to focus attention, control impulses and adapt to changes

Advantages of dimensional approach:
Nuanced understanding: Allows for a more nuanced understanding of individual differences by considering various dimensions simultaneously

Captures variability: Recognizes the continuous nature of temperament, capturing the variability and diversity within each dimension

Dynamic assessment: Allows for dynamic assessments, acknowledging that temperament characteristics can change over time

Question 17

Is temperament considered to be primarily biological/individual or based on the environment?

Answer 17

Temperament is considered to have both biological and environmental influences, reflecting an interaction between an individual’s innate predispositions and the experiences they encounter

Question 18

Describe at least three pieces of evidence that support your answer, paying particular attention to the role of the amygdala, stress hormones, and relations between childhood temperament and adult outcomes/personality

Answer 18

Three pieces of evidence supporting the role of both biology and the environment in shaping temperament:
Biological influence: amygdala and temperament
Amygdala’s role: The amygdala, a brain structure involved in processing emotions, plays a crucial role in temperament. Individual differences in amygdala reactivity have been linked to temperamental traits, particularly negative reactivity and fearfulness

Evidence: Neuroimaging studies have shown that children with greater amygdala reactivity may exhibit higher levels of negative reactivity in response to novel or fearful stimuli. This suggests a biological basis for the emotional aspects of temperament

Biological influence: stress hormones and reactivity
Role of stress hormones: Stress hormones, such as cortisol, are associated with the physiological response to stress and emotional reactivity. Individual differences in cortisol reactivity have been linked to temperamental characteristics, especially in response to environmental stressors

Evidence: Research has demonstrated that children with higher cortisol reactivity may show heightened emotional reactivity to stressors. This supports the notion that biological factors, including hormonal responses, contribute to individual differences in temperament

Environmental influence: childhood temperament and adult outcomes
Longitudinal studies: Longitudinal studies have highlighted the importance of both biological and environmental factors in shaping temperament and influencing later outcomes. Childhood temperament has been found to predict various aspects of adult personality and well-being

Evidence: For example, children with a difficult temperament may be more prone to behavioural problems in adolescence, and these difficulties can extend into adulthood. Conversely, positive early temperament traits have been associated with better social and academic outcomes in adulthood

Question 19

What is the “best” temperament and why? Provide examples of ways being “easy” and being “difficult” can each be adaptive

Answer 19

“Best” temperament:
No universally “best” temperament, as adaptability depends on the context and environment. Each temperament has its advantages and adaptive features
Adaptive features of “easy” temperament:
Social relationships: Children with an easy temperament may form positive social relationships more easily due to their approachable and adaptable nature
School success: Adaptability and positive mood can contribute to academic success as these children may be more open to learning experiences

Adaptive features of “difficult” temperament:
Vigilance and alertness: Children with a difficult temperament may exhibit heightened vigilance and alertness, which can be adaptive in environments with potential threats

Emotional sensitivity: Emotional intensity in response to stimuli can serve as an early warning system, helping the child navigate potentially challenging situations

Question 20

Explain the historical significance of the Harlow monkey studies

Answer 20

The Harlow monkey studies conducted by Harry Harlow in the 1950s and 1960s were of paramount historical significance in challenging prevailing notions about attachment, maternal care, and the impact of social relationships on psychological development. Harlow’s experiments involved rhesus monkeys and were primarily aimed at understanding the nature of infant-mother bonding

Question 21

What notions did it challenge? (Harlow monkey studies)

Answer 21

Challenging Notions:
Feeding vs contact comfort:
Prevailing belief: At the time, the prevailing belief, largely influenced by behaviourist theories, was that the primary basis for infant-mother attachment was the satisfaction of physiological needs, particularly feeding

Challenge by Harlow: Harlow’s studies challenged this view by demonstrating that infant monkeys, when given a choice, preferred spending time with a soft, comforting surrogate mother over a wire mother that provided nourishment

Importance of maternal care
Prevailing belief: The behaviourist perspective minimized the role of maternal care beyond meeting basic physiological needs. It emphasized the transactional nature of caregiver-infant interactions, focusing on external rewards and reinforcement

Challenge by Harlow: Harlow’s work underscored the significance of maternal care in the form of comfort, warmth, and emotional support. The surrogate mother that provided a sense of security and comfort was crucial for the monkeys’ well-being

Attachment and its importance:
Attachment definition: Attachment refers to the close, enduring emotional bond that forms between an infant and their primary caregiver, usually the mother. It involves a set of behaviours that seek to maintain proximity to the caregiver and a sense of security in their presence

Question 22

What is attachment and why is it important? (Harlow monkey studies)

Answer 22

Survival and safety: Attachment is considered adaptive from an evolutionary perspective as it promotes the survival and safety of the infant. Proximity to the caregiver ensures protection from potential threats

Emotional regulation: Attachment provides a secure base for emotional regulation. The caregiver serves as a source of comfort, helping the child manage distressing emotions and navigate the challenges of the environment

Social and cognitive development: Secure attachment has been linked to positive social and cognitive development. Children with secure attachments tend to exhibit better social skills, emotional regulation, and cognitive outcomes

Internal working models: Attachment experiences contribute to the formation of internal working models, which are mental representations of relationships. These models guide individuals in their interactions with others throughout life

Attachment theory (john bowlby): John Bowlby, building on Harlow’s work, developed attachment theory. He emphasized the biological basis of attachment and the importance of a secure base for exploration and development

Question 23

Be able to describe milestones in the development of attachment. At 12 months old, 18 months old, and 24+ months old, would we expect to see: separation anxiety, formed attachments, generalization of internal model of attachment, and reciprocal relationships?

Answer 23

12 months old:
Separation anxiety: Typically, separation anxiety becomes evident around this age. Infants may show distress when separated from their primary caregiver

Formed attachments: By 12 months, infants often form strong attachments to their primary caregivers, usually the mother but not exclusively

18 months old:
Generalization of internal model of attachment: At this age, children may start to generalize their internal working model of attachment to other caregivers or individuals. The attachment system becomes more flexible

24+ months old:
Reciprocal relationships: By the age of 2 years and beyond, children begin to engage in more reciprocal relationships with their caregivers. This involves a two-way interaction where the child not only seeks comfort but also understands and responds to the needs of the caregiver

Question 24

Be able to describe typical responses on the strange situation test for children with different attachment types. Are these profiles of responses relatively stable across cultures or westernized? How do different environmental factors (e.g., the number of caretakers) shape stable attachment? Where we do see cultural differences, how dramatic or subtle are they? How does this affect mental health outcomes?

Answer 24

Secure attachment:
Behaviour in the SST: Securely attached children use the caregiver as a secure base for exploration. They may explore the environment when the caregiver is present, show mild distress when separated, and seek comfort and easily settle upon the caregiver’s return

Cultural stability: Secure attachment tends to be relatively stable across cultures, and it is considered a positive attachment outcome

Environmental factors: Stability in attachment is often associated with consistent caregiving and a secure home environment

Insecure-avoidant attachment:
Behaviour in the SST: Children with insecure-avoidant attachment may avoid or ignore the caregiver both when present and upon return. They might not show distress during separation

Cultural stability: This attachment type also shows some cross-cultural stability, but the prevalence may vary

Environmental factors: Factors such as inconsistent caregiving or neglect can contribute to the development of insecure-avoidant attachment

Insecure-resistant/anxious attachment:
Behaviour in the SST: Children with insecure-resistant attachment may be clingy and show extreme distress upon separation. They might resist comfort upon the caregiver’s return

Cultural stability: Similar to avoidant attachment, there is some cross-cultural stability, but prevalence may differ

Environmental factors: Inconsistent caregiving, where the caregiver is unpredictable in responsiveness, can contribute to insecure-resistant attachment

Disorganized/Disoriented attachment
Behaviour in the SST: Children with disorganized/disoriented attachment show a lack of consistent strategy. Their behaviour may be contradictory or bizarre

Cultural stability: This attachment type shows less stability across cultures, and prevalence rates can vary

Environmental factors: Disorganized attachment is often associated with experiences of trauma, abuse, or neglect

Environmental factors and cultural differences
The number of caretakers, caregiving practices and cultural norms around independence can influence attachment stability
In cultures where multiple caregivers are the norm, attachment patterns may adjust accordingly
Cultural differences in parenting styles and expectations can lead to subtle variations in attachment outcomes

Impact on mental health
Secure attachment is generally associated with positive mental health outcomes
Insecure attachment types, especially disorganized attachment, may be linked to later mental health challenges, but individual and environmental factors play crucial roles

Question 25

Explain the significance of contingent responding in caregiver interactions with children. How does this shape attachment and wellbeing? Which parenting style is the most associated with contingent responding (i.e., is responsive)?

Answer 25

Contingent responding in caregiver interactions refers to the caregiver’s ability to respond promptly and appropriately to the child’s signals, needs, and cues. This responsiveness is a crucial component of the caregiver-child relationship and has significant implications for attachment and overall well-being

Significance of contingent responding:
Secure attachment: Contingent responding fosters the development of secure attachment. When caregivers consistently and sensitively respond to their child’s needs, the child learns that the caregiver is a reliable source of comfort and support. This contributes to the child’s sense of security and trust in the caregiver

Emotional regulation: Responsive caregiving helps children regulate their emotions. When caregivers promptly attend to a child’s distress or joy, it teaches the child that their emotions are acknowledged and validated. Over time, this contributes to the development of emotional regulation skills

Trust and relationship building: Contingent responding builds a foundation of trust between the caregiver and the child. Children who experience consistent responsiveness are more likely to form positive, trusting relationships with their caregivers, which is essential for healthy social and emotional development
Cognitive development: Responsive interactions support cognitive development. When caregivers engage in contingent conversations, respond to the child’s vocalizations, and provide appropriate stimulation, it enhances the child’s language development and cognitive skills

Impact on attachment and well-being:
Secure attachment: Contingent responding is closely associated with a secure attachment style. Children who experience this type of responsiveness tend to develop a secure base, using their caregivers as a source of comfort and exploration

Insecure attachment: In contrast, a lack of contingent responding can contribute to the development of insecure attachment styles. For example, inconsistent or unresponsive caregiving may lead to anxious or avoidant attachment patterns

Well-being: Children who experience contingent responding are more likely to have positive mental health outcomes. They may show higher levels of self-esteem, emotional resilience, and social competence

Parenting style associated with contingent responding:
Authoritative parenting: The authoritative parenting style is most closely associated with contingent responding. Authoritative parents are characterized by high responsiveness and high demandingness. They are sensitive to their child’s needs, provide warmth and support, and establish clear and reasonable expectations

Question 26

Explain why loving parents may adopt different parenting styles, and in what ways this may be protective in different environments. Which sociocultural factors predict parenting styles? How do sociological factors shape the way adults interface with the world and how they teach their children to do the same?

Answer 26

Loving parents may adopt a different parenting style due to a variety of factors, and these differences can be influenced by a combination of individual, familial, and sociocultural elements. Here are some reasons why parents may exhibit diverse parenting styles:
Individual differences:
Personality traits: each parent may have their own personality traits, temperaments, and parenting philosophies that shape their approach to child-rearing
Parental stress and well-being: the stress levels, mental health, and the overall well-being of each parent can influence their ability to respond to their child needs and engage in certain parents practices

Familial and environmental factors:
Cultural background: Cultural norms, values, and practices can significantly impact parenting styles. Different cultures may emphasize various aspects of child-rearing, such as independence, respect, or obedience
Family structure: The structure of the family, including the presence of extended family members, can influence parenting styles. For example, grandparents may play a role in childcare and contribute to the child’s upbringing

Sociocultural factors:
Socioeconomic status (SES): Families with different socioeconomic statuses may adopt distinct parenting styles. For example, authoritative parenting is often associated with positive outcomes and is more prevalent in higher SES families
Education level: Parental education can influence parenting practices. Higher levels of education are often linked with more informed and responsive parenting styles
Cultural values and beliefs: Sociocultural values, including religious beliefs and community norms, play a crucial role in shaping parenting styles. Cultural variations in expectations for children may contribute to diverse approaches

Environmental pressures:
Environment stressors: external factors such as financial stress, neighbourhood safety, and community support can impact parenting styles. Parents facing high level of stress may adopt different coping strategies

Authoritative parenting: This style, characterized by high demandingness and responsiveness, is often associated with positive child outcomes. In environments where autonomy, critical thinking, and adaptability are valued, authoritative parenting may be particularly effective

Authoritarian parenting: In environments where clear rules and discipline are essential for the child’s safety and success, authoritarian parenting might be protective. However, excessive strictness may lead to negative outcomes

Permissive parenting: In environments that prioritize creativity, exploration, and individual expression, permissive parenting may align with cultural values. However, it may be less effective in contexts requiring structure and discipline

Neglectful parenting: In some challenging environments, parents may unintentionally become neglectful due to external stressors. This can be detrimental to the child’s well-being, emphasizing the importance of supportive interventions

Question 27

Be able to define socioeconomic status, paying particular attention to the fact that it is multifaceted, entailing many components, and also that it overlaps with race/ethnicity and exposure to threat. Understand that income is generally used as a measure of SES, but be able to explain what might be missing if only income is considered. Understand that effects of income are larger at the lower end than the higher end of the scale

Answer 27

Socioeconomic status (SES) is a multidimensional concept that encompasses various economic, social, and educational factors to represent an individual’s or family’s position within a social hierarchy. It provides a framework for understanding the relative standing of individuals or families in terms of their access to resources, opportunities, and overall well-being. SES is a complex construct that includes several components:

Income:
Definition: The total earnings and financial resources acquired by an individual or family, usually measured on an annual basis
Limitations: While income is a crucial component of SES, relying solely on income for SES assessment may overlook other important dimensions of social status

Education:
Definition: The level of formal education attained by an individual, often measured in terms of years of schooling or academic degrees
Importance: Education is a key determinant of employment opportunities, social mobility, and access to information and resources

Occupation:
Definition: The type of work an individual engages in, along with the associated social status and income level
Significance: Occupation reflects the skills, training, and social standing of an individual, contributing to overall SES.

Wealth:
Definition: The total value of assets owned by an individual or family, including property, investments, and savings
Role: Wealth provides a more comprehensive picture of economic well-being than income alone, as it considers accumulated assets

Access to resources:
Definition: The availability of various resources, such as healthcare, quality housing, and cultural opportunities
Impact: Unequal access to resources can influence health outcomes, educational attainment, and overall quality of life

Occupational prestige:
Definition: The societal perception of the social status associated with a particular occupation
Relevance: Occupational prestige reflects the social standing and recognition associated with one’s work

Intersections with race/ethnicity and exposure to threat:
SES is closely intertwined with race/ethnicity, with historical and systemic factors contributing to disparities in opportunities and outcomes
Exposure to threat, such as living in high-crime neighbourhoods or facing discrimination, can impact SES and exacerbate existing inequalities

Incomes and its effects
Income is a commonly used indicator of SES and plays a significant role in shaping living conditions and access to resources.
Effects of income are often more pronounced at the lower end of the SES scale, where limited financial resources can lead to challenges in meeting basic needs, accessing quality education, and maintaining health

Question 28

Understand that gaining sufficient statistical power to study mediations and pathways of SES effects, especially neuroimaging studies, is difficult due to sample size required.

Answer 28

Complex Pathways:
SES affects individuals through intricate pathways involving social, economic, and environmental factors
Capturing the complexity of these pathways requires detailed and comprehensive measurements, increasing the demand for larger sample sizes.

Multiple Mediators:
SES can influence outcomes through multiple mediating variables (e.g., access to education, healthcare, stress levels)
Examining each mediator and their interactions necessitates larger samples to detect meaningful effects

Neuroimaging Specifics:
Neuroimaging studies explore the neural mechanisms underlying SES effects on cognitive and emotional processes
Analyzing brain data often involves complex statistical models, and detecting small effects in the brain may require larger sample sizes

Individual Differences:
Individuals exhibit considerable variability in their responses to SES-related factors
Capturing this variability and understanding individual differences demand larger and more diverse samples

Longitudinal Studies:
To assess the longitudinal impact of SES, studies need to follow participants over extended periods
Maintaining participant engagement and data integrity over time necessitates adequate resources and larger sample sizes

Replicability Concerns:
Ensuring the reliability and replicability of findings is crucial in scientific research
Larger sample sizes enhance the robustness of results and increase confidence in the generalizability of findings

Heterogeneity Across SES Strata:
SES encompasses a broad spectrum, from low to high socioeconomic backgrounds
Adequately representing this heterogeneity requires sizable samples within each SES stratum

Accounting for Covariates:
Controlling for relevant covariates (e.g., age, gender) increases the precision of analyses but also adds to the complexity
Balancing covariate control with sample size considerations is a key challenge

Ethical and Practical Considerations:
Neuroimaging studies often involve resource-intensive procedures and ethical considerations
Balancing ethical standards with the need for larger samples can be challenging.

Budgetary Constraints:
Conducting large-scale neuroimaging studies involves substantial financial resources
Budget constraints may limit the ability to recruit and retain a sufficiently large and diverse participant pool

Question 29

Provide an example of a domain-specific effect of SES on cognition, as well as a domain-general effect. Be able to identify the anterior hippocampus as a brain region particularly affected by stress, and thus, changes to the anterior hippocampus partially mediating the relationship between income and memory. How do these findings about stress relate to epigenetic findings we discussed in Lecture 2?

Answer 29

Domain-specific effect of SES on cognition:
Example: SES (Socioeconomic Status) has been associated with language development in children. Research suggests that children from higher SES backgrounds often exhibit better language skills compared to those from lower SES backgrounds. This could be due to differences in language exposure, educational resources, and cognitive stimulation in the home environment

Domain-general effect of SES on cognition:
Example: SES has been linked to overall cognitive development, including aspects like memory, attention, and executive functions. Children from higher SES families may have more access to enriching educational experiences, cognitive stimulation, and supportive parenting, which can contribute to their overall cognitive abilities

Anterior hippocampus and stress:
Identification: The anterior hippocampus is highlighted as a brain region particularly affected by stress. Chronic stress, often associated with lower SES, can lead to structural changes in the brain, especially in the anterior part of the hippocampus.
Mediating Relationship Between Income and Memory: Changes in the anterior hippocampus have been proposed to partially mediate the relationship between income and memory. Stress-related alterations in the hippocampus can impact memory function. This suggests a potential neural mechanism through which socioeconomic factors influence cognitive outcomes

Relation to epigenetic findings (from Lec 2)
Connection: The notes don’t explicitly mention specific epigenetic findings, but stress-related changes in the brain, such as those affecting the hippocampus, can be linked to epigenetic processes. Epigenetic modifications can influence gene expression, and stressors may lead to alterations in the epigenome. For example, changes in DNA methylation patterns could be associated with the impact of stress on cognitive functions

Question 30

Define threat and deprivation. Understand that they are proposed to be the main sources of childhood adversity

Answer 30

Threat: refers to the experience of harm or the perception of potential harm to oneself or others. In the context of childhood adversity, threat may manifest in various forms, such as exposure to violence, abuse, or traumatic events. It involves situations where a child perceives danger, leading to stress responses and potential long-term consequences on development
Example: Children living in high-crime neighbourhoods, witnessing domestic abuse, or experiencing physical abuse are exposed to threat, impacting their emotional well-being and cognitive development

Deprivation: involves the lack of absence of expected environmental input or resources necessary for healthy development. In the context of childhood adversity, deprivation may occur when children lack essential needs, such as adequate nutrition, educational opportunities, emotional support, or a safe and stable living environment. Deprivation can hinder optimal growth and development
Example: Children growing up in poverty may face deprivation, experiencing limited access to quality education, nutritious food, and a supportive family environment, which can have lasting effects on their cognitive and socioemotional development

Question 31

What is a deficit lens? How can we resist interpreting findings through a deficit lens?

Answer 31

A deficit lens, in the context of research or analysis, refers to a perspective that focuses predominantly on identifying and highlighting deficiencies, weaknesses, or shortcomings in individuals or groups. When applied to the study of human development, education, or other fields, a deficit lens tends to emphasize what individuals lack rather than recognizing their strengths, capacities, and potential

Resisting the interpretation of findings through a deficit lens involves adopting a more strengths-based or asset-based perspective. Here are some ways to resist a deficit lens:
Strengths-based approaches:
Highlighting competencies: instead of solely focusing on deficits, emphasize and celebrate the competencies, skills, and positive attribute of individuals or groups

Cultural competence:
Understanding diverse perspectives: Be culturally competent and aware of diverse experiences. Recognize that what may be perceived as a deficit in one cultural context could be a strength in another

Trauma-informed practices:
Recognizing the impact of Trauma: Acknowledge and understand the potential impact of trauma on individuals’ lives. Approach findings with sensitivity to the effects of adverse experiences

Intersectionality:
Considering multiple identities: Recognize the intersectionality of identities (e.g., race, gender, socioeconomic status) and how they interact. Avoid reducing individuals to a single dimension and consider the complexities of their experiences

Empowerment and resilience:
Focusing on resilience: Explore and highlight instances of resilience and coping strategies. Understand that individuals may have faced challenges but have also developed adaptive ways of navigating them

Asset-based language
Choosing positive language: Use language that emphasizes assets and strengths rather than framing findings in negative or deficit-oriented terms

Community engagement:
Involving communities: Involve communities in the research process. Engage with community members to understand their perspectives and incorporate their insights into the interpretation of findings

Policy and practice implications:
Advocating for positive change: Translate research findings into policies and practices that empower and support individuals and communities. Advocate for interventions that build on strengths rather than focusing solely on addressing deficits