Lecture 10 Flashcards
What is the difference between consciousness and self-awareness? Explain how agency, joint attention, and self-recognition each provide information about self-awareness.
Consciousness:
Definition: Consciousness is the state of being aware of and able to think about one’s surroundings, thoughts, and feelings.
Characteristics: It involves awareness, perception, and subjective experience. It encompasses the ability to process information, experience sensations, and have subjective feelings.
Example: When you are awake and aware of your surroundings, you are in a state of consciousness.
Self-awareness:
Definition: Self-awareness is the ability to recognize oneself as an individual separate from the environment and other individuals.
Characteristics: It involves an understanding of one’s own thoughts, emotions, and actions. Self-aware individuals can reflect on their own experiences and recognize themselves as distinct entities.
Examples:
Recognizing your reflection in a mirror.
Understanding your own emotions and motivations.
Agency, Joint Attention, and Self-Recognition in relation to Self-awareness:
Agency:
Definition: Agency refers to the sense of being an actor, having control over one’s actions, and influencing events.
Self-awareness Connection: Experiencing agency is a component of self-awareness. For instance, in studies with infants, the ability to control an effect (e.g., moving an arm to produce a sound) demonstrates an early sense of agency.
Joint Attention:
Definition: Joint attention involves two or more individuals sharing attention to the same object or event.
Self-awareness Connection: Joint attention skills typically emerge around 12 months and are considered an early sign of self-awareness. It implies an understanding that others can share attention with oneself, indicating a developing awareness of one’s own mental states and those of others.
Self-Recognition:
Definition: Self-recognition is the ability to identify oneself in a mirror or photograph.
Self-awareness Connection: Passing the mirror self-recognition task, often observed in humans around 18-24 months, indicates a more advanced stage of self-awareness. Animals like great apes, dolphins, and elephants also show self-recognition
Describe the order of milestones in the progression of children’s self-awareness. When do they begin to recognize themselves in the mirror? How is a mirror-self recognition test performed? Provide examples of some other species that appear to do the same. What is common among these species?
Sense of Agency (2-4 months):
Description: Infants begin to develop a sense of agency, realizing that they can control objects and produce effects in their environment.
Example: An infant might move a mobile by kicking, realizing their actions have an impact.
Joint Attention (12 months):
Description: Joint attention emerges, where infants and caregivers share attention to the same object or event. This implies an awareness that others can focus on the same things they do.
Example: Pointing at an interesting object and looking at the caregiver to share the experience.
Mirror Self-Recognition (18-24 months):
Description: Children begin to recognize themselves in a mirror, demonstrating an understanding that the reflection represents their own body.
Mirror Test: Typically involves placing a mark on the child’s face (e.g., a red dot) without their knowledge. When they see themselves in the mirror, if they touch or attempt to remove the mark on their own face, it suggests self-recognition.
Example: Children who pass the mirror self-recognition test may touch their own nose or try to wipe off the mark on their forehead.
Mirror Self-Recognition in Other Species:
Great Apes (Chimpanzees, Bonobos, Orangutans, Gorillas):
Example: Great apes have demonstrated mirror self-recognition in various studies. They exhibit behaviors like examining their own bodies or using the mirror to explore parts of themselves that are normally out of sight.
Dolphins:
Example: Dolphins, known for their high intelligence, have shown mirror self-recognition. They may exhibit behaviors such as turning to view and inspect marked parts of their bodies when exposed to a mirror.
Elephants:
Example: Elephants have also exhibited mirror self-recognition, using the mirror to explore marked areas on their bodies. This suggests a level of self-awareness in these animals.
Commonalities Among Species:
All these species are characterized by advanced cognitive abilities and complex social structures.
Mirror self-recognition is often associated with a high level of intelligence and the ability to understand one’s own body as a distinct entity.
The capacity for self-recognition appears linked to the development of certain brain structures, particularly those associated with self-awareness and social cognition
In what ways does representing others’ actions in the same way as one’s own help children, and in what ways does it hinder them? Be able to explain the role of the “I did it bias,” action experience, mu attenuation, and inhibition of imitation training in particular.
Helps Children:
Learning Facilitation:
Role of “I Did It Bias”: The “I did it bias” refers to the tendency of children to over-claim others’ actions as their own. This bias is associated with greater learning, suggesting that when children represent others’ actions as their own, it can facilitate learning.
Explanation: Over-claiming others’ actions may result in a deeper engagement with the learning process, potentially enhancing memory and understanding.
Social Learning:
Action Experience: Children who have experience with certain actions themselves are more likely to understand and learn from similar actions performed by others.
Explanation: Action experience provides a foundation for understanding the goals and intentions behind actions, allowing children to relate others’ actions to their own experiences.
Mu Attenuation:
Role of Mu Attenuation: Mu rhythms in EEG studies correspond to limb movements. Greater mu rhythm attenuation is associated with greater goal understanding when observing others’ actions.
Explanation: When children treat others’ actions as their own, it may lead to similar neural activation, enhancing their ability to understand the goals and intentions behind those actions.
Hinders Children:
Inhibition of Imitation:
Role of Inhibition of Imitation Training: Inhibiting imitation, or training children to inhibit imitating others, can improve perspective-taking abilities.
Explanation: While imitation can be a helpful learning tool, inhibiting it is crucial for understanding that others have unique mental states. Over-imitation, where children imitate unnecessary actions, may hinder the development of a nuanced understanding of others’ intentions.
Separating Self and Other:
“I Did It Bias” in Collaborative Tasks: In collaborative tasks, children tend to over-claim others’ actions more, and this is associated with greater learning. However, it may also lead to errors in attributing actions to oneself or others.
Explanation: Representing one’s and others’ actions in a similar way, while beneficial for social learning, may create challenges in distinguishing between self and other actions.
Be able to define gender and sex. What are different constructs that fall within each of these umbrellas? Which features are changeable and which are not? Which features are more changeable than others?
Sex:
Definition: Sex refers to the biological and physical attributes that distinguish male from female organisms. This classification is typically based on factors such as chromosomes, reproductive organs, and secondary sexual characteristics.
Constructs within Sex:
Chromosomes: Typically XX for females and XY for males.
Reproductive Organs: Female reproductive system includes ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina; male reproductive system includes testes, vas deferens, and penis.
Secondary Sexual Characteristics: Physical features that develop during puberty but are not directly related to reproduction. Examples include breast development in females and facial hair in males.
Gender:
Definition: Gender refers to the social and cultural roles, behaviors, expectations, and identities associated with being male or female. It is a complex interplay of biology, identity, and societal norms.
Constructs within Gender:
Gender Identity: A person’s deeply-felt internal experience of gender, which may or may not align with the sex assigned at birth.
Gender Expression: External manifestations of one’s gender identity, often expressed through clothing, hairstyle, mannerisms, and other behaviors.
Gender Roles: Societal expectations and norms regarding the behaviors, activities, and roles deemed appropriate for men and women.
Gender Stereotypes: Preconceived ideas or beliefs about the characteristics, roles, and behaviors associated with being male or female.
Changeability:
Sex: Biological aspects of sex, such as chromosomes and reproductive organs, are typically considered stable and not easily changeable. However, medical interventions like hormone therapy or gender confirmation surgeries can alter certain features.
Gender: Gender identity is a deeply internal aspect of a person and is generally considered to be stable. However, gender expression, gender roles, and societal attitudes toward gender can change over time and vary across cultures.
More Changeable Aspects:
Gender Expression: This aspect of gender, which involves outward behaviors and appearance, is more changeable as individuals may choose to express their gender in different ways.
Gender Roles and Stereotypes: Societal attitudes and expectations about gender roles and stereotypes can evolve over time, reflecting changes in cultural norms and values
When do children self-categorize their own gender? Be able to describe the progression of different milestones, as well as characteristic responses that accompany them: categorical perception of gender, gender identity, gender stability, preference for same-gender peers, gender constancy, and solid demonstration of gender stereotypes.
Categorical Perception of Gender:
Age: Around 2 years old.
Description: Children begin to categorize people into gender groups based on observable characteristics such as clothing, hairstyles, and other superficial features.
Gender Identity:
Age: Typically emerges between 2 and 3 years old.
Description: Children start to recognize and label their own gender. They may use terms like “boy” or “girl” to describe themselves.
Gender Stability:
Age: Around 3 years old.
Description: Children understand that gender is stable over time, even if superficial characteristics change. For example, a boy will grow up to be a man, and a girl will grow up to be a woman.
Preference for Same-Gender Peers:
Age: Evident in early childhood.
Description: Children show a preference for playing with peers of the same gender. This preference is often strong during the preschool years.
Gender Constancy:
Age: Emerges around 4 to 7 years old.
Description: Children understand that gender is invariant despite changes in appearance or activities. For example, a girl who dresses in boy’s clothes is still a girl.
Solid Demonstration of Gender Stereotypes:
Age: By around 5 to 6 years old.
Description: Children firmly adhere to and express gender stereotypes, associating specific traits, activities, and roles with being male or female. This includes beliefs about what is considered “appropriate” behavior for each gender.
Characteristic Responses:
Categorical Perception: Children may make statements like “boys have short hair, and girls have long hair” or categorize people into binary gender groups based on observable cues.
Gender Identity: Children may confidently state their gender when asked. For example, they might say, “I am a girl” or “I am a boy.”
Preference for Same-Gender Peers: Children may actively seek out playmates of the same gender and show discomfort or disinterest in playing with peers of the opposite gender.
Gender Constancy: Children might resist engaging in activities that are perceived as not typical for their gender, asserting their understanding of their own gender identity.
Solid Demonstration of Gender Stereotypes: Children may express strong opinions about what boys and girls should or should not do. They may conform to societal expectations of gendered behavior and show resistance to activities or interests deemed inappropriate for their gender
Be able to describe the four experiments performed by Bian et al. (2017), highlighting the different findings for: perceptions of men and women, perceptions of boys and girls, children’s own choices for gameplay, and the connections between perceptions and firsthand choices. At what age are these differences observable? What does this imply? Understand that boys show a similar pattern with “woman = nice” stereotypes as girls do with “man = brilliant.” Understand that even though girls begin to show a “man = brilliant” bias, they do not translate to perceptions of academic achievement.
Bian et al. (2017) conducted a series of experiments to investigate gender stereotypes, specifically focusing on perceptions of brilliance and the impact on children’s choices and interests. Here is an overview of the four experiments:
Experiment 1 & 2: Perceptions of Men and Women
Participants: 5-7 year-olds.
Design: Children were shown pictures of two men and two women. They were asked to select which person they thought was “really, really smart” (indicating brilliance).
Findings: Girls displayed a gender bias, perceiving their own gender as less likely to be brilliant. Boys, however, did not show a gender bias and were equally likely to choose men or women.
Experiment 3 & 4: Perceptions of Boys and Girls, and Choices for Gameplay
Participants: 6-7 year-olds.
Design: Children were shown pictures of two boys and two girls. They were asked to select which group they thought was “really, really smart.” After that, they were given the opportunity to choose a game to play from two options—one associated with being “really, really smart,” and the other with “trying really hard.”
Findings: Girls were less likely to choose the game for “really, really smart children” than boys. Girls’ disinterest in the game associated with brilliance was mediated by their own brilliance beliefs. Boys, on the other hand, did not show a significant difference in their game choices.
Key Points:
Gender stereotypes emerged by age 5-7, with girls showing a bias associating brilliance with men.
Girls’ bias did not translate to perceptions of academic achievement; they did not rate girls lower in terms of expected academic success.
Boys did not show a gender bias in brilliance perceptions, but girls exhibited a “man = brilliant” bias.
Girls’ disinterest in activities associated with brilliance was linked to their own beliefs about brilliance.
Implications:
The study suggests that gender stereotypes about brilliance are socialized and may not be present in early childhood but emerge around 6 years old.
These stereotypes go beyond expectations and influence children’s own interests and choices.
Gender stereotypes, even if not consistent across genders, can impact children’s engagement in certain activities associated with intellectual ability.
It’s important to note that these findings highlight the complex ways in which gender stereotypes develop and influence children’s perceptions and choices
Be able to provide three examples of the ways parents may inadvertently socialize their children into gender roles. How do children react to gendered language even when it is about something arbitrary?
Gendered Language and Toys: Parents may unconsciously use gendered language when talking to or about their children. For example, they might praise a boy for being “strong” and a girl for being “cute.” Additionally, parents may offer gender-stereotyped toys, such as dolls for girls and trucks for boys, reinforcing traditional gender roles in play.
Gendered Division of Labor: The way parents allocate household chores and responsibilities can contribute to gender role socialization. If children consistently observe mothers taking on nurturing and caregiving tasks while fathers handle more “masculine” duties, it reinforces traditional gender norms.
Clothing Choices and Appearance Expectations: Parents may unintentionally contribute to gender role socialization through clothing choices and appearance expectations. For instance, insisting that girls wear dresses and boys wear pants, or encouraging girls to focus on their appearance while emphasizing boys’ activities, can reinforce stereotypical gender roles.
Children’s Reactions to Gendered Language:
Even when gendered language is applied to arbitrary characteristics, children may react in specific ways:
Internalization of Stereotypes: Children tend to internalize gendered language and associated stereotypes, influencing their self-perception and expectations. For example, if a parent consistently praises a girl for being “pretty” and a boy for being “brave,” children may internalize these qualities as important aspects of their identity.
Preference for Gender-Consistent Activities: Children might show a preference for activities and toys traditionally associated with their gender, influenced by the language used by parents. This can contribute to the development of gender-segregated play and interests.
Impact on Self-Esteem: Constant exposure to gendered language can impact children’s self-esteem. For instance, if a girl hears that boys are praised for being “smart” while girls are praised for being “nice,” she may develop a perception that academic achievement is not as important for her as being agreeable
What are different types of gender nonconformity? Which types of gender nonconformity are perceived most negatively and by whom? Why might this be?
Gender nonconformity refers to behaviors, appearance, or expressions that do not align with societal expectations for one’s assigned gender. Different types of gender nonconformity include:
Clothing and Appearance: Individuals may choose clothing, hairstyles, or accessories that do not conform to traditional gender norms. For example, a person assigned male at birth wearing dresses or makeup.
Activities and Interests: Gender nonconformity can manifest in the choice of activities and interests. For instance, a person assigned female at birth expressing a strong interest in traditionally male-dominated fields like sports or technology.
Behavioral Expression: Gender nonconformity can be expressed through behaviors that challenge stereotypical gender expectations. This may include assertiveness, emotional expressiveness, or communication styles that defy traditional gender norms.
Gender Identity: Gender nonconformity can also relate to one’s gender identity. Nonbinary, genderqueer, or genderfluid individuals may identify outside the binary categories of male or female.
Perceptions of Gender Nonconformity:
Certain types of gender nonconformity are often perceived more negatively, and these perceptions can vary based on cultural, social, and individual factors:
Clothing and Appearance: Nonconformity in clothing and appearance tends to be more visible and may elicit stronger negative reactions from those who hold rigid gender norms. For example, a person assigned male at birth wearing traditionally feminine clothing may face greater scrutiny.
Activities and Interests: Gender nonconformity in activities and interests may challenge traditional gender roles, leading to negative perceptions. For instance, a girl who excels in traditionally male-dominated sports may face stereotypes and bias.
Behavioral Expression: Nonconformity in behavior can be perceived negatively when it challenges gender expectations. For instance, a boy expressing vulnerability or sensitivity may face criticism due to societal expectations of traditional masculinity.
Gender Identity: Nonbinary or genderqueer identities may face misunderstanding and prejudice, as they challenge the binary understanding of gender. Lack of awareness and acceptance can contribute to negative perceptions.
Factors Influencing Negative Perceptions:
Cultural and Social Norms: Societal norms and cultural expectations play a significant role in shaping perceptions of gender nonconformity. In societies with rigid gender roles, nonconforming behaviors may be met with resistance.
Lack of Education and Awareness: Negative perceptions often stem from a lack of understanding or awareness about diverse gender expressions. Education and increased awareness can contribute to more accepting attitudes.
Fear of Deviation: Some individuals may perceive gender nonconformity as a deviation from the norm, leading to discomfort or fear. Fear of the unknown or unfamiliar can contribute to negative attitudes.
Personal Beliefs and Values: Individuals with conservative beliefs or strongly ingrained gender stereotypes may be more likely to hold negative perceptions of gender nonconformity.
Promoting education, awareness, and open dialogue can contribute to breaking down stereotypes and reducing negative perceptions associated with gender nonconformity. Encouraging acceptance and embracing diversity in gender expression are essential steps toward fostering inclusivity
What are examples of genders beyond the cisgender boy/man, girl/woman binary? Are these a westernized concept, or are third genders more common among Indigenous peoples? How common are they internationally? How does the presence of a traditional third gender category affect acceptance of non-conformity?
Gender is a complex and diverse spectrum that extends beyond the traditional binary of cisgender boy/man and girl/woman. Some examples of genders beyond the binary include:
Nonbinary: Individuals who do not exclusively identify as male or female may use terms like nonbinary, genderqueer, genderfluid, or agender to express their gender identity.
Two-Spirit: A term used by some Indigenous peoples in North America to describe a person who embodies both masculine and feminine qualities. It is a cultural and spiritual identity.
Hijra: In South Asia, hijras are a distinct social and gender category. They may be transgender, intersex, or eunuchs and often form communities with unique cultural practices.
Fa’afafine: In Samoa, fa’afafine refers to individuals who identify outside the binary gender system. They may be assigned male at birth but take on roles and identities traditionally associated with females.
Agender: Someone who identifies as having no gender or as gender-neutral. Agender individuals may reject categorizations based on male or female.
Indigenous Perspectives:
The concept of third genders is not a westernized idea; many Indigenous cultures worldwide have recognized and accepted non-binary gender identities for centuries. The recognition of third genders is often deeply rooted in cultural and spiritual beliefs.
International Presence:
Third gender categories or non-binary identities can be found in various cultures globally. In addition to the examples mentioned earlier, cultures in South Asia, Southeast Asia, Africa, and the Pacific Islands often have traditional concepts that go beyond the binary.
Impact on Acceptance:
The presence of a traditional third gender category can positively impact the acceptance of gender nonconformity in a society. In cultures where non-binary identities have historical and cultural roots, there may be greater acceptance and understanding of diverse gender expressions.
Acceptance is influenced by cultural attitudes, openness to diversity, and the degree to which traditional practices are maintained. Societies with a long history of recognizing diverse gender identities may have more inclusive perspectives and fewer rigid gender norms.
Promoting awareness and understanding of the rich diversity of gender identities across cultures is crucial for fostering acceptance and respect for individuals who do not conform to binary gender norms. Acknowledging the existence of various gender identities contributes to building more inclusive and supportive communities
What is gender affirming care versus harassment? How does it relate to the negative outcomes of social transition? Understand that and explain why the positive outcomes of gender affirming care affirm the individual AND social nature of identity.
Gender Affirming Care:
Definition: Gender affirming care refers to medical, psychological, or social support provided to individuals to align with their gender identity. It encompasses a range of interventions, including hormone therapy, gender-affirming surgeries, counseling, and creating an environment that recognizes and respects an individual’s gender identity.
Purpose: The goal of gender affirming care is to help individuals live in a way that aligns with their self-identified gender, promoting mental well-being, and reducing gender dysphoria.
Harassment:
Definition: Harassment, in the context of gender identity, refers to unwelcome behaviors, discrimination, or mistreatment based on a person’s gender identity. This can include verbal, physical, or psychological abuse that creates a hostile or unsafe environment for the individual.
Impact: Harassment can lead to negative mental health outcomes, increased stress, anxiety, depression, and a sense of social isolation.
Relation to Negative Outcomes of Social Transition:
When individuals face harassment or discrimination based on their gender identity, it can contribute to negative outcomes associated with social transition. Negative outcomes may include increased mental health struggles, reduced self-esteem, and a sense of not being accepted by society.
Positive Outcomes of Gender Affirming Care:
Affirmation of Identity:
Gender affirming care validates an individual’s gender identity, acknowledging and respecting their self-perceived gender. This affirmation contributes to a positive self-concept and a sense of authenticity.
Mental Health Benefits:
Access to gender affirming care has been associated with improved mental health outcomes. Individuals who receive supportive care experience lower levels of depression, anxiety, and distress related to gender dysphoria.
Social Inclusion:
Gender affirming care supports social inclusion by facilitating an individual’s ability to live authentically in society. Acceptance and recognition from healthcare providers and the broader community contribute to a sense of belonging.
Reduced Gender Dysphoria:
Gender affirming interventions, such as hormone therapy and surgeries, can alleviate gender dysphoria, reducing distress associated with the incongruence between one’s gender identity and assigned sex at birth.
Affirming Individual and Social Nature of Identity:
Gender affirming care acknowledges the individual’s gender identity as valid and worthy of respect. This affirmation extends beyond the personal level to include the broader social context. By providing supportive care, society recognizes diverse gender identities, fostering inclusivity, and challenging harmful norms.
The positive outcomes of gender affirming care underscore the interconnectedness of individual and social identity. Affirmation at both levels contributes to a more compassionate and understanding society that values and respects the unique identities of its members. In contrast, harassment undermines these positive outcomes, emphasizing the importance of fostering an environment that embraces diversity and supports individuals on their gender journeys
What is self-regulation and delay of gratification? Explain what the marshmallow task is and why it measures self-regulation. What are traditionally believed to be the benefits of longer wait times? Which factors contribute to longer wait times?
Self-Regulation and Delay of Gratification:
Self-Regulation:
Definition: Self-regulation refers to the ability to monitor, control, and modify one’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in response to changing situations and demands. It involves managing impulses, maintaining focus, and making decisions aligned with long-term goals.
Delay of Gratification:
Definition: Delay of gratification is a specific aspect of self-regulation that involves resisting the temptation of an immediate reward in favor of obtaining a more significant reward in the future.
The Marshmallow Task:
Task Description:
In the marshmallow task, a child is presented with a choice between two options:
Option 1: Eat a single marshmallow immediately.
Option 2: Wait for a specified period (e.g., 15 minutes) without eating the marshmallow and receive two marshmallows as a reward.
Measurement of Self-Regulation:
The marshmallow task is used as a measure of self-regulation because it assesses a child’s ability to resist the immediate gratification of consuming the marshmallow in favor of a larger reward later. It provides insights into a child’s capacity for impulse control and the ability to delay immediate rewards for more significant long-term gains.
Traditionally Believed Benefits of Longer Wait Times:
Cognitive Benefits:
Longer wait times are associated with cognitive benefits, including improved executive functions such as attention, planning, and problem-solving.
Academic Success:
Children with the ability to delay gratification have been found to achieve higher academic success in later years, possibly due to enhanced focus and persistence in learning.
Social Competence:
Delaying gratification is linked to better social competence, as individuals who can regulate their impulses may engage more effectively in social interactions.
Emotional Well-being:
The capacity for delay of gratification is correlated with better emotional well-being and mental health outcomes.
Factors Contributing to Longer Wait Times:
Cognitive Strategies:
Children who use cognitive strategies such as distraction or visualization to divert attention from the tempting reward may exhibit longer wait times.
Understanding of Time:
A child’s understanding of time, including the ability to grasp the concept of waiting for a future reward, contributes to longer wait times.
Social Context:
The presence of a supportive and trusting social context can enhance a child’s willingness to wait, knowing that the promised reward will be delivered.
Individual Differences:
Some children naturally possess stronger self-regulation abilities, contributing to longer wait times, while others may find it more challenging to resist immediate gratification.
Expectation of Reward:
The perceived value of the delayed reward influences a child’s decision to wait. A more highly valued reward may motivate longer delays.
Understanding and enhancing self-regulation, as measured by tasks like the marshmallow task, can have implications for various aspects of a child’s development, including academic achievement, social interactions, and emotional well-being
Explain limitations of the traditional marshmallow task, and how environmental and contextual information play a role in shaping the adaptiveness of different strategies. When is excessive persistence harmful? What are two ways that children’s responses appear to be optimized to environmental factors?
Limitations of the Traditional Marshmallow Task:
Cultural Variability:
The marshmallow task’s applicability may vary across cultures, as the value placed on immediate versus delayed gratification can be influenced by cultural norms and practices.
Socioeconomic Factors:
Children from different socioeconomic backgrounds may approach the task differently. Socioeconomic status can affect the availability and predictability of resources, influencing a child’s attitude toward delayed rewards.
Trust in the Environment:
A child’s willingness to delay gratification is influenced by their trust in the experimenter and the reliability of the environment. If past experiences suggest that promised rewards may not be delivered, it can impact their choices.
Individual Differences:
The task does not account for individual differences in cognitive strategies and coping mechanisms. Some children may naturally employ effective strategies for self-regulation, while others may struggle despite having the capacity for self-control.
Role of Environmental and Contextual Information:
Adaptiveness of Strategies:
Strategies for delaying gratification can be adaptive or maladaptive based on the environmental context. For example, in an unreliable environment where promised rewards are often not delivered, immediate consumption may be a more adaptive strategy.
Social Cues:
Environmental cues, such as the presence of social cues or peer influence, can impact a child’s decision-making. If a child perceives that others are not waiting, they may adjust their strategy to align with social norms.
Excessive Persistence:
Excessive persistence, or persisting in a task that may not yield a reward, can be harmful when it diverts time and energy from more fruitful activities. In some cases, a child may persist because they misunderstand the task or lack flexibility in adapting strategies.
Optimization to Environmental Factors:
Flexibility in Strategies:
Children appear to optimize their responses by being flexible in their use of strategies. Adapting strategies based on the reliability of the environment allows them to make decisions that maximize benefits in specific contexts.
Sensitive to Social Information:
Children are sensitive to social information and may adjust their behavior based on the actions of others. This adaptability can be advantageous in environments where social cues provide valuable information about the likelihood of obtaining rewards.
Understanding the limitations of traditional tasks and the influence of environmental and contextual factors is crucial for interpreting individual differences in self-regulation. It highlights the dynamic nature of self-regulatory processes and the need to consider the broader context in which children make decisions about delaying gratification
Define a growth mindset and contrast it from a fixed mindset. Explain the logic underlying each mindset, typical responses to challenge/failure, and how different factors can shape mindset. How is mindset different than grit?
Growth Mindset vs. Fixed Mindset:
Growth Mindset:
Logic: Belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication, hard work, and learning. Individuals with a growth mindset see challenges as opportunities to learn and improve.
Typical Responses to Challenge/Failure: Embrace challenges, persist in the face of setbacks, view effort as a path to mastery, and learn from criticism. Failure is seen as a temporary setback and an opportunity for growth.
Fixed Mindset:
Logic: Belief that intelligence and abilities are fixed traits. Individuals with a fixed mindset may believe that they have a certain amount of intelligence, and they cannot do much to change it.
Typical Responses to Challenge/Failure: Avoid challenges to maintain the appearance of competence, give up easily in the face of obstacles, see effort as fruitless, ignore useful feedback, and feel threatened by others’ success.
Factors Shaping Mindset:
Praise and Feedback:
Growth Mindset: Emphasizing effort, strategies, and improvement over innate ability can foster a growth mindset.
Fixed Mindset: Praising innate intelligence may reinforce a fixed mindset.
Attribution of Success and Failure:
Growth Mindset: Attribute success to effort and effective strategies; view failure as a learning opportunity.
Fixed Mindset: Attribute success solely to innate ability; view failure as a reflection of inherent limitations.
Perceptions of Challenges:
Growth Mindset: Challenges are seen as opportunities to learn and grow.
Fixed Mindset: Challenges are viewed as threats to one’s intelligence and abilities.
Effort and Persistence:
Growth Mindset: Embrace effort as a path to improvement; persist in the face of setbacks.
Fixed Mindset: See effort as futile or a sign of incompetence; give up easily.
Role of Mistakes:
Growth Mindset: Mistakes are considered a natural part of the learning process.
Fixed Mindset: Mistakes are viewed as a sign of incompetence and are often avoided.
Mindset vs. Grit:
Mindset: Focuses on the underlying beliefs about the malleability of intelligence and abilities. It influences how individuals approach challenges, view effort, and respond to setbacks.
Grit: Refers to perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Grit involves sustaining effort and interest over an extended period to achieve meaningful objectives. While related, grit emphasizes the persistence aspect of achieving goals, whereas mindset focuses on beliefs about one’s potential for growth and development.
In summary, a growth mindset fosters a belief in the potential for improvement and resilience in the face of challenges, while a fixed mindset can limit individuals by associating success and failure with fixed traits. Both mindset and grit play significant roles in shaping how individuals approach learning, effort, and long-term goals
What are ways that different kinds of praise, especially person praise, can backfire? Are interventions to build growth mindsets always effective? Describe one successful intervention, and one example in which an intervention backfired. How does temporal contingency in process praise influence its effectiveness?
Ways Praise Can Backfire, Especially Person Praise:
Fixed Mindset Reinforcement: Person praise, emphasizing innate qualities or intelligence, can reinforce a fixed mindset, leading individuals to believe that their abilities are static and not subject to improvement.
Fear of Evaluation: Excessive personal praise can create a fear of evaluation, as individuals may become concerned about maintaining the appearance of intelligence or talent. This fear can hinder risk-taking and learning from mistakes.
Performance Goals Over Mastery Goals: Person praise may lead individuals to adopt performance goals, focusing on proving their intelligence or abilities to others, rather than mastery goals centred on learning and improvement.
Avoidance of Challenges: When praised for inherent qualities, individuals may be more likely to avoid challenges that could threaten their perceived intelligence or competence.
Effectiveness of Growth Mindset Interventions:
Successful Intervention: Dweck’s “Brainology” intervention, which teaches students that the brain is like a muscle that grows stronger with effort, has shown positive effects on students’ motivation and academic performance. This intervention emphasizes the malleability of intelligence and encourages a growth mindset.
Backfired Intervention: In some cases, interventions emphasizing a growth mindset may not be effective, especially if they are perceived as insincere or if the underlying beliefs of educators are incongruent with the intervention. The effectiveness of interventions is influenced by factors such as the perceived sincerity of the message and the broader cultural context.
Temporal Contingency in Process Praise:
Temporal Contingency: The timing and relevance of process praise (praising effort, strategies, or perseverance) play a crucial role in its effectiveness. Temporal contingency involves delivering praise in a timely manner, ensuring it is linked to the specific effort or strategy employed.
Effectiveness: Process praise that is temporally contingent, delivered promptly and tied directly to the individual’s actions, is more effective in promoting a growth mindset. It helps individuals understand the connection between their effort and success, fostering a belief in the power of learning and improvement.
In summary, while growth mindset interventions can be effective, their success is contingent on factors such as sincerity, cultural context, and the alignment of educators’ beliefs. Process praise, when temporally contingent, is more likely to promote a growth mindset by emphasizing the importance of effort, strategies, and perseverance
