Lecture 7 - Prosocial Behaviour and Moral Reasoning

Question 1

Prosocial Definition (Eisenberg et al, 2006)

Answer 1

Voluntary behaviour intended to benefit another

Question 2

Altruistic vs Prosocial

Answer 2

• Motivated purely by desire to help another, at cost to oneself (example anonymous donation) - ALTRUISTIC
• Pattern of behaviour, regardless of motivation (potential benefit/associated costs to the donor) - PROSOCIAL

Question 3

Why is pro sociality evolutionary?

Answer 3

More likely to assist genetically related individuals (humans and non-humans) and benefits the survival of the group.

Question 4

Eisenberg (1983)

Answer 4

7-17 year olds were more likely to help family, friends and those of a similar background.

Question 5

Are humans naturally prosocial?

Answer 5

Spontaneous prosocial behaviour in children from relatively early age
Some evidence from twin studies of genetic contribution to prosocial tendencies

Question 6

Conditioned or socially learned?

Answer 6

Early attachment to parents

Parental / adult responses to behaviour important

Question 7

When does prosociality emerge?

Answer 7

• Around 1st birthday, helping behaviour emerges
• Rapidly increases in toddler/pre-schooler period, and then slowly thereafter into early adulthood
• At least into late adolescence
• Shift to act according to moral principles, rather than for selfish motivations or gain approval

Question 8

Dahl et al (2017)

Answer 8

Explicit scaffolding (via encouragement and praise) increases prosocial behaviour in infants

Question 9

Schuhmacher et al (2018)

Answer 9

Observing helpful behaviour increases prosocial behaviour in infants

Children who see model donate are more likely to donate themselves (more impact than ‘preaching’)

More likely to copy skilled, warm, and familiar models to base their behaviour off.

Question 10

Potential problems with pro sociality studies

Answer 10

Experimenters are unfamiliar people to the children and there is some deception involved.

Question 11

Zahn-Waxler et al (2001)

Answer 11

Mothers reported responses to events in they 14-36 month old children where negative emotions are expressed around them. There was an increase in empathetic responses with age.

Question 12

Warneken and Tomasello (2006) - Participants

Answer 12

24 18 month olds
Experimental condition; looked at object and child, verbalised problem
Control; neutral face towards object.

Question 13

Warneken and Tomasello (2006) - Method

Answer 13

The experimenter either needed help hanging up clothes, opening a cabinet, stacking books or retrieving a spoon

Question 14

Warneken and Tomasello (2006) - Findings

Answer 14

Children more likely to help in experimental condition for most tasks
Immediately in most cases – eye contact and verbal announcement unnecessary
Restricted by ability to interpret goal/need

Helped more than chimpanzees
Unfamiliar adult
More sophisticated cognitive skills
Natural tendency to help others

Question 15

Factors influencing prosocial development

Answer 15

1. Parenting styles and response
   Secure attachment = higher empathy
   Parents who are empathetic, respond sensitively, encourage empathy
2. Perspective-taking ability
3. Ability to regulate emotions
4. Cross cultural differences
   Values placed on cooperation vs competition, individualism vs support

Question 16

Moral Reasoning Definition

Answer 16

How we reason or judge whether an action is right or wrong

Question 17

Piaget (1932)

Answer 17

Observed how children understood “rules of the game”, corresponds to “rules of society”

Question 18

Piaget (1932) Stages of Understanding

Answer 18

1. Premoral (up to 4 years): rules not understood
2. Moral realism/heteronomous (4-10 years old): rules come from higher authority, cannot be changed
3. Moral subjectivism/autonomous (10+): rules mutually agreed by players, can change

Question 19

Linaza (1984)

Answer 19

Cross cultural test
English and Spanish children
Confirmed Piaget’s findings

Question 20

Dilemma method: which child is the naughtiest?

Answer 20

Up to 9/1 years, children judge based on the amount of damage, not motive or intention

Question 21

Problems with the dilemma method design

Answer 21

Unequal damage distracts children
‘Bad intentions’ are vague
Memory demands too high for young children

Question 22

Smetana (1981)

Answer 22

2-5 year olds can differentiate between violations of social convention and moral conventions

Question 23

Kohlberg (1981) Stage Names

Answer 23

Preconventional, conventional, postconventional

Question 24

Preconventional Stage Definition

Answer 24

Reason in relation to self, little understanding of shared rules – seek pleasure, avoid punishment, children under 9 and some adolescents and adult “criminal offenders”
Stage 1 is concerned with authority, obey rules to avoid punishment
Stage 2 weighs the risks and benefits, recognise others might have different interests and action determined by one’s needs

Question 25

Conventional Stage Definition

Answer 25

Importance of rules, expectations, conventions of society (most adolescents and adults)
Stage 3 focuses on interpersonal relationships – being good = having good motives, living up to what is ‘expected’ of you (approval/disapproval of others important
Stage 4 focuses on society as a whole – performing one’s duty to maintain social order

Question 26

Postconventional Stage Definition

Answer 26

Understanding of moral principles underlying laws
Stage 5: importance of functioning society and individual rights. Usually not until 20+ years old, and not everyone
Stage 6: following universal ethical principles. When law violates principle, act in accordance to principle

Question 27

Real Life Example of Heinz Dilemma (Shapiro and Johnna, 1995)

Answer 27

“We shouldn’t consider war…”
• “because it would hurt our economy…” (Stage 1)
• “because we’ll have more money for domestic issues…” (Stage 2)
• “because we don’ t want to appear too militaristic…” (Stage 3)
• “because war is killing and killing is against the law…” (Stage 4)
• “even though the situation is bad, war is damaging to people and property and society agrees that is bad…” (Stage 5)
• “although atrocities have been committed, it would be an even greater atrocity to wage war…” (Stage 6)

Question 28

Colby et al (1987)

Answer 28

Kohlberg’s dilemmas are too artificial, and clinical interview method too subjective

Question 29

Snarey (1985)

Answer 29

Review of moral development studies in 27 cultures.

• Similar progression through stages 1-4, but Stage 5 only found in urban societies
• Biased toward cultures favouring individualism

Question 30

Gender bias

Answer 30

All of Kohlberg’s original participants were male. Stages reflect specifically “male morality” which is more orientated towards justice.

Question 31

Gilligan (1982)

Answer 31

Criticized both Piaget and Kohlberg of negative views of “female morality”
Argued females more concerned about impact behaviour has on others
“people before principles” (female) vs. “principles before people” (male)