Lecture 6: Talent, Expertise and Learning

Question 1

explain how Galton was involved with talent research

Answer 1

Galton was the first person to mention talent, and he believed it to be fully hereditary through genetics. Later he did more research into the nature but also nurture of talent, how its environment stimulates talent, but he kept believing “nature” was far more important than “nurture”

Question 2

give 2 examples of environmental factors that have an influence on talent

Answer 2

• order of birth; later borns partake in more risky sports and even in safer sports they take more risks
• deliberate practice

Question 3

Summarize what Simonton says about the effect of genetic factors on performance

Answer 3

Talent can be seen as a large number of differentially weighted genetically influenced abilities and traits;
- Genetic factors account for a significant portion of variance in performance, but less than half.
- Estimates suggest genetic endowment may explain about 20% of variance in scientific creativity and 17% in leadership.
- Genetic factors provide a competitive edge, but environmental influences are also crucial in shaping overall performance.

Question 4

explain the formal model of nature-nurture in relation to sports

Answer 4

• at the top theres GF - genetic factors and EF - environmental factors, which are assumed to be uncorrelated
• GF and EF underlie two further variables; PA - physical abilities (eg. height, hand-eye coordination, strength) and PT -psychological traits (eg. general intelligence, personality, values, risk-taking)
  –> they are a function of both GF and EF
• both PA and PT underlie DP - deliberate practice (eg. knowledge, capacities, skills)
• PA, PT and DP underlie AP - athlete’s position (whithin a team sport)

Question 5

explain how talent is defined based on this model

Answer 5

talent is defined by any sequence of variables of the following four kinds:
a) GF –> PA –> AP
b) GF –> PT –> AP
c) GF –> PA –> DP –> AP
d) GF –> PT –> DP –> AP

–> talent consists of all genetic influences that indirectly affect athletic performance, whether mediated by just physical abilities or psychological traits or also mediated by deliberate practice

Question 6

give 2 types of mediator causal chains

Answer 6

1. genetic better-faster effects = entail those two causal sequences—(c) and (d)—that involve deliberate practice as a mediating variable after the preceding mediators, physical abilities and psychological traits
   –> describe instances where deliberate practice is indirectly enhanced by genetic factors, the enhancement frequently taking the form of accelerated expertise acquisition
2. genetic more-bang-for-the-buck effects = involve those causal chains—(a) and (b)—that bypass deliberate practice altogether, the effects of physical abilities and psychological traits going directly to athletic performance
   –> describes the case where one athlete seems to have mastered the same expertise as another athlete, as judged during practice, but manages to exhibit superior performance during competition

Question 7

what are 3 oversimplifications of the formal model

Answer 7

• It is not always easy to separate genetic and environmental factors (many supposedly environmental variables may actually have a partial genetic basis)
• only allows for genetic factors to function in a straightforward additive and static manner
• the model assumes that the crucial variables in the six sets of variables can all be arrayed as causal chains, no two-way causal relations or feedback loops are allowed

Question 8

explain what three forms genetic environment causal relations can adopt

Answer 8

1. passive; where genetically related parents shape the family environment
2. evocative; where the youth’s genetically influenced characteristics elicit corresponding responses from others (e.g., tall kids getting chosen for pick-up basketball on the school playground)
3. active; where the youth’s genetically shaped interests drive them to shape his or her environment

Question 9

name the empirical method that Galton used to support his claim that there was such a thing as hereditary genius

Answer 9

Family Pedigree Method:
- Galton utilized this method to trace the lineage of eminent individuals.
- He documented the incidence rates of eminent achievers being related to other eminent achievers.
- This method allowed him to establish a statistical correlation between familial relationships and the occurrence of genius across various domains.

Question 10

Explain what Simonton means when he says: ‘Advocates for deliberate practice have often pushed an extreme nurture position.’

Answer 10

• Advocates emphasize the importance of practice and environmental factors in achieving high performance.
• This perspective downplays or ignores the role of genetic predispositions and inherent abilities.
• Simonton suggests that while practice is important, it should not overshadow the contributions of genetic factors to talent and performance.

Question 11

Explain how the relative weight of a certain talent can vary across different performance domains

Answer 11

• The impact of genetic factors on performance can differ based on the specific requirements of each domain.
• Some talents may be more heavily influenced by genetic predispositions in certain fields (e.g., athletics) compared to others (e.g., arts).
• This variability highlights the complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors across different contexts.

Question 12

Describe what position Simonton takes in the nature-nurture debate

Answer 12

• He advocates for a balanced view that recognizes the contributions of both genetic and environmental factors.
• He suggests that talent is a product of complex interactions between nature and nurture, rather than being solely determined by one or the other.

Question 13

emergenesis

Answer 13

= A form of inheritance where the expression of a trait depends on the combination of multiple genetic factors. If any single trait is missing, the overall effect is diminished, highlighting the complexity of genetic interactions.

Question 14

epigenetic growth

Answer 14

= Refers to the gradual unfolding of traits over time, influenced by environmental factors. Traits may not manifest immediately but develop through experiences and interactions throughout an individual’s life.

Question 15

Describe the traditional view of skill acquisition:

Answer 15

• Skill acquisition traditionally emphasized innate talent and experience.
• It was believed that individuals with natural abilities would excel with minimal training.
• The focus was on the quantity of practice rather than the quality or type of practice.
• Skills were thought to develop linearly with experience, without considering the structured approach to practice.

Question 16

how does the achievement of expert performance differ from the attainment of everyday skills

Answer 16

• the goal for everyday activities is to achieve a satisfactory level as fast as possible, until it becomes automatic and with minimal effort (autonomous)
• experts counteract automaticity by developing increasingly complex mental representations to attain higher levels of control of their performance, so they remain within the “cogntive” and “associative” domains

Question 17

explain why experience does not always lead to expert performance, give the name of its solution and an example of the difference

Answer 17

social/simple experience-based indicators of expertise do not guarantee superior performance
- Being regarded as an expert may be based on reputation, knowledge, or experience.
- Delivering expert performance refers to consistently achieving superior results in practice or competition.
- An expert may not always perform at their best due to various factors (e.g., stress, fatigue).
–> focus should be on individuals who exhibit reproducibly superior performance

example:
you can have studied a subject for many years, but this does not mean that you can always understand/know something better than others in the field (RSP)

Question 18

who is one of hollands most influential experimental psychologists

Answer 18

adriaan de groot

Question 19

what is meant by representative situations

Answer 19

• Representative situations are practice environments that closely mimic real-world conditions.
• They allow learners to apply skills in contexts that reflect actual performance scenarios.
• Engaging in representative situations enhances transferability of skills to competitive settings.

Question 20

what type of experience will lead to improved performance

Answer 20

domain-specific experience (domain-related activities)

Question 21

what is the likelihood of the existence of prodigies that are capable of expert performance with little/no practice

Answer 21

not very high, there is no evidence for this; neither is there evidence for abrupt improvements/reproducible performance –> improvement is always gradual

Question 22

can you reach elite performance after having matured

Answer 22

yes, expert performance is usually attained in adulthood

Question 23

does the 10-year rule always count

Answer 23

no, the number of years of intense training required to become an internationally acclaimed performer differs across domains

Question 24

discuss the increases in performance over time and the relation with improved methods of practice

Answer 24

• Improved training methods can lead to significant gains in performance across domains like calculus, piano, and sports.
• Structured practice, feedback, and innovative teaching techniques enhance learning outcomes.
• Research shows that tailored approaches can accelerate skill acquisition and mastery.

Question 25

explain why there is a large difference between elite performers and amateurs

Answer 25

• they receive remarkable support by their parents; finding a good teacher, initiating regular practice, spending money on equipment, etc
• they engage in more deliberate practice (= activities designed to improve performance)

Question 26

Describe the role that concentration plays in deliberate practice:

Answer 26

• Concentration is essential for effective deliberate practice, allowing individuals to focus on specific tasks.
• High levels of attention help identify errors and facilitate learning from feedback
• Distractions can hinder progress, making sustained concentration crucial for improvement.

Question 27

what is the higher speed of learning by “talented” children a result of

Answer 27

deliberate practice

Question 28

what is the difference between amateurs and experts in regard to deliberate practice/playful activities

Answer 28

amateurs spend more time on playful activities while experts spend more time on deliberate practice
–> exception: elite soccer players did not spend more time on playful activities, but that they did spend more time on deliberate practice than less skilled players

Question 29

Explain the role of teachers and coaches in deliberate practice:

Answer 29

• Teachers and coaches provide guidance, structure, and feedback essential for deliberate practice.
• They help set specific goals and design practice sessions that target areas for improvement.
• Effective coaching fosters a supportive environment that encourages growth and resilience

Question 30

explain the expert-performance approach

Answer 30

• skill acquisition is viewed as an extended series of gradual changes of the physiological and cognitive mechanisms that allow the observable performance to show associated improvements
• acquisition of a skill can be described as a series of relatively stable states, where each state has a set of mechanisms that mediate execution of the associated performance
• the primary differences between two adjacent states can be physiological (eg. level of strength, endurance, speed), whereas the difference between the mechanisms of the adjacent states is primarily cognitive

Question 31

explain how you can improve adaptations by straining physiological systems

Answer 31

• when the human body is put under exceptional strain, dormant genes in the DNA are expressed and extraordinary physiological processes are activated
• over time, the cells in the body will reorganize in response to the induced metabolic demands of the activity
• these adaptations will eventually allow the individual to execute the given level of activity without greatly straining physiological systems
• to gain further beneficial increases in adaptation, the athlete needs to increase or change the level of activity

Question 32

explain the acquisition of mental representations for performance and continued learning

Answer 32

mental representations both mediate the superior expert performance, while also providing the same mechanisms that can be incrementally altered to further enhance performance after practice and training

Question 33

explain how expert chess players are so good

Answer 33

• they formed rapid impressions of the position, in order to retrieve potential moves from memory
• they then evaluate these moves
  –> this superior recall performance is limited to representative chess positions and disappears almost completely when chess positions are randomly rearranged

Question 34

what is the superior performance of expert typists based on and how does it work

Answer 34

the ability to read ahead while typing; this is based on the (partial) automatization of the typing process, so that attention is freed up that can be used to read ahead

Question 35

Explain how anticipation can facilitate superior performance in tennis, and what expert tennis players look at to predict what will happen

Answer 35

• expert tennis players are able to anticipate where the opponents shots will land even before their racket has hit the ball (based on eg. hip and shoulder rotation)
• they can also use later-occurring and more deterministic cues to confirm/reject their anticipations (eg. racket swing)

Question 36

what can the rarity of excellence be explained by

Answer 36

• the scarcity of optimal training environments
• the extended period of time needed to reach an expert performance level

Question 37

how long can expert performers maintain concentration

Answer 37

4-5 hours a day (this is the case for people from a wide range of domains), in one-hour periods with a break in between and sufficient naps, rest and sleep in between
–> insufficient recovery from deliberate practice often leads to overtraining injuries and burnout

Question 38

are methods of practice and training limited to a specific domain?

Answer 38

no, experts from different domains may learn from each other’s methods of practice and training, to improve their own methods in order to reach higher levels of performance

Question 39

give 3 definitions of talent and explain why there are so many

Answer 39

1. Talent means someone is better than the rest
2. Talent means that someone learns faster than others
3. Talent is a collection of innate abilities that makes some athletes more
   successful than others
   –> there are many definitions because scientists do not agree on the definition, and because it is a very broad concept that is hard to define

Question 40

explain how DNA influences behavior and traits

Answer 40

• the same DNA can result in different outcomes because of “noise” in the translation process from DNA to cells
• environmental factors can influence how DNA is translated to cells (epigenetics, degeneracy)

Question 41

give 3 arguments for the viewpoint that the importance of genetic talent is overrated

Answer 41

1. Nobody knows the ‘ideal mix’ of traits needed for succes (and you can always compensate)
2. Training is a much stronger predictor of performance level than talent (quantity and quality of training)
3. Sometimes children appear talented but they just train a lot (or since they were 3 years old

Question 42

why is it better to study expert performance than people who are called experts

Answer 42

because people who are called experts just have a lot of experience with a certain subject, but this does not mean that they their performance is actually superior to that of others

Question 43

how many hours did Ericsson say you need to become an expert and does this count for every domain?

Answer 43

10.000 –> this is based on musicians; athletes generally need less (4000-5000)

Question 44

what are the 5 main characteristics of deliberate practice

Answer 44

1. Aimed at improving, requires effort
2. You have to practice at the edge of your ability
3. There has to be direct feedback about execution
4. Based on multiple repetitions of the same or similar tasks
5. Tiring and not necessarily fun to do

Question 45

how strong is the correlation between deliberate practice and performance in music and sports

Answer 45

• music; .46/.61 (when only practiced rituals are tested)
• sports; .42

Question 46

why were two different correlations found for music

Answer 46

because, many times, the skills that are tested in establishing the correlation are not exactly the same as the behaviors that were actually practiced
–> you have to actually count only the amount of hours they practiced the skill that you use to assess their performance

Question 47

name and describe the 3 phases of skill development by Fitts and Posner

Answer 47

1. Cognitive phase
   - First exploration of the movement
   - Explicit instructions
2. Associative phase
   - Discovery of cause and effect
   - Connection between perception and action develops
3. Autonomous phase
   - Automatic execution of movements, no conscious control
   - Explicit rules for task performance no longer needed
   - Attention can be used for other skills (e.g., tactical decision making)

Question 48

what 2 things is expert performance a result of and explain them

Answer 48

1. chunking = putting together certain things, to make sure you don’t have to give seperate attention tp all of them; eg. chunking of information (integrating/putting together info), chunking of motor skills (being able to do multiple things at once), merging of perception and action
2. automatization = automatization of behaviors and cognitions which allow you to focus on the more complex parts of performance; eg. perception of early cues, reading ahead while typing

Question 49

explain the reaction time probe and how this can be used to measure the attentional demands of a task

Answer 49

there are 2 tasks;
- the primary task = reacting to a certain thing (eg. react to lights)
- the secondary task = something that you can do (this is the thing that you are assessing whether someone is has automatized this skill; eg. dribbling)

1. Determine the ‘base rate’ on the primary task (reaction time to lights)
2. Add the secundary task (dribbling)
3. How much does the primary task deteriorate?
4. Decline in RT is a measure of the attention required for secondary task (dribbbling)

–> whoever has the shortest reaction time reacting to the lights, needs the least attention for the dribbling (because their attention is freed up to react to the lights, whereas, if the dribbling is taking up much of your attention, there is less of it left to react to the lights)

Question 50

give 3 examples of motor learning

Answer 50

• Children learning to swim
• A handball team wants to adopt a new attack strategy
• A trainee surgeon needs to learn a surgical procedure on the heart

Question 51

explain what implicit learning, errorless learning and analogy learning is

Answer 51

• implicit learning = learning that happens through experience, interaction, and practice. Instead of focusing on memorization and the rules themselves, implicit learning is the result of using the rules to solve problems, learn from mistakes, and develop instincts for the new patterns or information.
• errorless learning = teaching technique whereby people are prevented as far as possible from making mistakes while they are learning a new skill or new information
• analogy learning = involves teaching a motor skill by linking it to a simple analogy or metaphor that helps the learner conceptualize the movement without overloading them with technical details

Question 52

explain internal versus external attentional focus and which one is better

Answer 52

• internal focus = focus on what happens inside and how exactly to feel and what exactly to do
• external focus = focus on the outcome of movement
  –> external focus is better

Question 53

explain the difference between blocked, sequential and random interference and which one is better

Answer 53

assume there are 3 skills blocks that need to be practiced;
- blocked = practice every block seperately, first 1, then 2, then 3
- sequential = practice in sequence but multiple times; 1,2,3,1,2,3, enz
- random = practice skill blocks at random
–> blocked is better for beginners, random is better for advanced performers

Question 54

what are 2 psychological factors that can optimize the learning process

Answer 54

1. Self-efficacy and motivation during learning
   - Self-efficacy leads to better learning
   - Autonomy leads to better learning
   – Even autonomy in obviously irrelevant choices (color of the cones)
2. Self-regulation of learning
   - Learners who can choose when they want feedback learn faster (than yoked controls)
   - When do learners want feedback? → After a succesful attempt
   - When do they often get feedback? –> after a failure