Lecture 2: Attributions, Motivation and Goals

Question 1

explain the two kinds of confidence

Answer 1

• global self-confidence = personality traits/dispositions; facilitated daily living (eg. trying new things)
• situation-specific self-confidence = believing that you can accomplish something in a specific situation –> can generalize to other situations/global s-c
  –> critical for athletes to develop both

Question 2

what are 3 models of self-confidence and explain them

Answer 2

1. Bandura’s Theory of Self-Efficacy: self-efficacy is a strong predictor of individual/group atheletic performance
2. Harter’s Competence Motivation Theory: humans are innately motivated to be competent in all areas of achievement, a person can attempt to satisfy this urge by trying to be competent in a sport
3. Vealey’s Multidimensional Model of Sport-Confidence: confidence is conceptualized as being a dispositional (state) or state-like across a continuum of time

Question 3

what are 4 factors leading to self-efficacy beliefs (according to Banderas theory)

Answer 3

1. successful performance
2. vicarious experience; observational learning
   - participatory modeling = the learner first observes a model perform the task and then the model assists the subject in successfully performing the task
3. verbal persuasion; encouragement/self-talk
4. emotional arousal; proper emotional/physiological arousal is influential for learning

Question 4

what are 3 startegies for enhancing self-efficacy

Answer 4

• instruction drilling
• acting confident yourself
• encourage positive self-talk

Question 5

what are 6 factors that enhance the development of high competence motivation

Answer 5

1. instrinsic motivaiton
2. years of sport experience
3. perceived control
4. praise and technical information
5. friendship
6. peer group acceptance

Question 6

explain the components of the self-confidence rectangle, what they entail, what sources/types of sport confidence belongs to them and their effect

Answer 6

sources of sport-confidence:
1. achievement = mastery and demonstration of ability
- accomplishment
- experience
- competitive advantage
2. self-regulation = physical/mental preparation
- training preparation
- self-awareness
- innate factors
3. social climate = support, leadership (of coach), vicarious learning
- quality coaching
- social support
- trust

types of sport-confidence:
1. cognitive efficiency = thought management, maintaining focus, decision making
- psychological confidence
- superiority
2. physical skills and training = skill execution and training
- skill acquisition
- tactical awareness
- physical attributes
3. resilience = overcoming obstacles/setbacks/doubts, refocusing after errors
- achievements

Question 7

psychological momentum

Answer 7

= a positive or negative change in cognition, affect, physiology and behavior caused by an (series of) event that will result in a shift in performance/competitive outcome

Question 8

what are 3 models of psych. momentum and explain them

Answer 8

1. Antecedent-consequences model = A situational antecedent event such as a dunk in basketball or an ace serve in tennis precipitates the perception of psychological momentum.
   Psychological momentum results in feelings of goal progression, self-confidence, motivation, and energy. Whether or not psychological momentum will translate into actual performance enhancement depends upon the actions of the opposing players as well as personal and situational context variables.
2. Multidimensional model = psychological momentum is defined as being either positive or negative. The key element in the model is the precipitating event, which leads to a momentum chain
3. Projected performance model = according to the projected performance model, positive and negative psychological momentum are only labels used to describe performance, and are the result of extremely good or bad performance

Question 9

moderator variable

Answer 9

an independent variable that modifies or determines the effect that a second independent variable has upon a dependent variable

Question 10

hot hand phenomenon

Answer 10

= the belief that performance of an athlete temporarily improves following a string of successes (streak shooting)

Question 11

explain the dual role of affect in the motivational process

Answer 11

• the execution of activity and the goal state elicit an affective response which, if it is positive, can have a rewarding effect and therefore increase the probability of similar behavior
• it also provides energy for actions; positive affect energizes action whereas negative affect hinders action

Question 12

what are 10 motivational categories of incentives for partaking in sports

Answer 12

1. Health and fitness
2. Well-being (fun/feeling good, relaxing/counteracting stress)
3. Appearance (having an athletic figure, losing weight)
4. Performance (effort/training, enhancing performance, competition)
5. Kinesthetic experiences
6. Social experiences
7. Social networking (keeping in contact with old acquaintances, making new acquaintances)
8. Experiencing excitement and trying out new things in sport
9. Aesthetic experiences
10. Self-presentation

Question 13

motive

Answer 13

= personality trait; defines which incentives and goal states an individual strives for and also has an effect on an individual’s mood
–> different incentives are important/motivating for different people

Question 14

volitional processes

Answer 14

= additional processes that must be
added to the motivation process in order to ensure that an intention is translated to action and maintained until the goal is achieved

Question 15

explain the expectancy x value model

Answer 15

The basic assumption is that people
choose goals by offsetting the value, i.e., the attractiveness of the goal (e.g., success in a sporting task) against
the probability of being able to achieve it (expectancy).

Question 16

explain the model of achievement motivation (Atkinson)

Answer 16

The incentive for success increases with the difficulty of the task; The likelihood of success decreases with increasing task difficulty; Performance motivation is highest in moderately difficult tasks –> This type of task has a medium
incentive and a medium probability of success

Question 17

explain the difference between motivation and volition

Answer 17

• motivation: refers to the desire, need, or drive that initiates and directs behavior toward a goal
• volition: choosing and evaluating the goal of an action

Question 18

what are 2 leading theories about motivation and explain them

Answer 18

1. Self-determination theory: types of motivation are on a continuum from extrinsic to intrinsic –> the more intrinsic the better
2. Achievement goal theory: there are two kinds of orientation, mastery orientation and performance orientation
   - performance orientation means people want to outperform others and
   demonstrate their ability; related to negative psychological outcomes like disappointment, frustration, loss of motivation, lowered perceived competence, anxiety, etc.
   - mastery orientation means people want to develop competence and task
   mastery; related to positive psychological outcomes like lower fear of failure, higher perceived competence, greater enjoyment, intrinsic interest, etc.

Question 19

what are 6 kinds of (extrinsic/intrinsic) motivation are where does the autonomy threshold lie

Answer 19

1. amotivation = you do it, but don’t really want to or don’t know why
2. external motivation = you do it for a reward or to avoid punishment
3. introjected regulation = you do it because you feel guilty or ashamed if you don’t
   –> autonomy threshold
4. identified regulation = you do it to achieve something important/attractive
5. integrated regulation = you do it because you think you’re the kind of person who does things like it, because you think it’s important/necessary
6. intrinsic motivation = i do it because i enjoy it

Question 20

explain the 2x2 model of achievement goals

Answer 20

from left to right: mastery - performance
from up to down: approach - avoidance
4 types and their goals:
- mastery approach = improve yourself and become better
- performance approach = be better than others
- mastery avoidance = avoid becoming worse than you are or avoid not learning everything there is about something
- performance avoidance = to not loose/not be worse than everyone else

–> approach goals (mastery, but also performance) have positive psychological effects and avoidance goals often have negative effects

Question 21

what are two types of focus and explain them

Answer 21

1. promotion focus = attention is paid to striving for and achieving positive states; concerned with maximizing profits in the diverse areas of life and with self-fulfillment; active, energetic, creative
2. prevention focus = characterized by being responsible and acting safe; concerned with minimizing losses; passive, cautious, and con-
   servative

Question 22

explain the TEOSQ and the SOQ questionnaires and how they differ

Answer 22

1. Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire: examines to what
   extent the respondents are attracted by task-oriented or competitive situations in sport
2. Sport Orientation Questionnaire: measure of individual differences in sport achievement orientations
   –> distinguish between
   three motivational orientations in sport:
   - competitiveness, the desire to enter and strive for success in
   sport-specific situations
   - win orientation, the desire to win interpersonal competitive sporting events
   - goal orientation, the desire to achieve personal goals in sport

Question 23

describe both a motivational and a performance climate

Answer 23

• motivational: rewards for effort, hard work is the way to succes, focus on learning/mastery, cooperation is valued
• performance: competition is encouraged, mistakes are punished, rewards for the winners, winning above all, comparison with others to evaluate performance

Question 24

explain the attribution theory

Answer 24

2 dimensions can be identified:
1. locus of causality; Internal (person) vs. External (environment) attribution
2. stability; stable vs unstable

Typical attributions for success which combine the two categories are effort (internal, unstable), ability (internal, stable), luck (external, unstable), and task difficulty (external, stable).

The dimension of stability determines future expectations. The dimension locus of causality determines affect.

Question 25

what third dimension was added to the attribution theory and why

Answer 25

controllability, because it is the decisive factor when attributing failure

Question 26

explain two kinds of attributional bias

Answer 26

1. self-serving bias = attributing success to oneself and to regard the causes for this success as stable and controllable, and to explain reasons for failure as unstable and uncontrollable
   –> can strengthen self-esteem, yet they can also prevent individuals from learning from their mistakes
2. team-serving bias = After success, individuals are more likely to make internal, stable, and controllable attributions for the team’s performance. In contrast, after failure, group members are more likely to use external, unstable, and uncontrollable factors to explain poor performance

Question 27

explain attribution training

Answer 27

athletes must first become aware of their attribution style, they are trained in how to change their attributions so
that they have a positive effect

Question 28

what are 3 types of goals

Answer 28

1. Outcome goals: performing better than someone else (or demonstrating ability) (e.g., to beat Sven kramer in speed skating)
2. Performance goals: reaching an objective standard or improving your personal best (e.g., running 10 km in 45 minutes)
3. Process goals: technique focused, qualitative (e.g., lean over the ball (penalty kick), sit deep in curves (speed skating)

Question 29

what are the 4 mechanisms of why goal setting works

Answer 29

1. they help focus attention
2. they regulate effort (towards achieving the goal)
3. they affect persistence
4. they affect creativity

Question 30

what are 2 important characteristics of succesful goals according to the goal-setting theory and what are 3 more helpful characteristics

Answer 30

• difficulty
• specificity

Helpful characteristics:
- goals are set for different time-frames (short, mid and long term)
- combination of all outcome, performance and process goals is used
- goals are SMART

Question 31

explain the self-concordance model

Answer 31

Goals fit more or less well to individuals (i.e., to the self, hence “self-concordance”). People are more likely to choose and pursue goals that align with their fundamental interests and values. Goals that reflect a person’s personal interests, desires, and needs are called self-concordant.
–> The concordance or discordance of a goal directly influences the processes of goal pursuit and achievement (e.g., joy or unhappiness when pursuing goals) and also has psychological consequences (e.g., well-being) when achieving the goal

Question 32

explain 3 important facts related to unattainable goals

Answer 32

• goal-disengagement (abandonment) is also an important psychological skill that could increase well-being and even performance
• about 20% of athletes experience problems related to their career termination
• involuntary termination is more likely to lead to negative effects than voluntary career termination

Question 33

what are 7 recommendations for practice

Answer 33

1. choose the right goals
2. formulate approach rather than avoidance goals and in accordance with the SMART principle
3. form implementation intentions
4. pay attention to favorable attributions
5. positive coaching behavior
6. supporting anxious athletes; give the opportunity to try out and practice new tasks on their own, comparison with others should be completely avoided
7. Support goal disengagement when goals are unattainable and promote the formulation of new attainable goals

Question 34

what are 3 ways to create intrinsic motivation

Answer 34

1. competence; believing you can do it
2. autonomy; feeling it is your choice
3. relatedness; feeling connected to coach and peers (attachment)

Question 35

explain flow theory

Answer 35

assumes that if people perceive that the (social) environment provides challenges which match the person’s capacities to meet those challenges, then he or she is more likely to be in the moment to enjoy the moment
–> when “in flow,” the person is optimally stretching his or her capabilities with the likelihood of learning new skills and increasing feelings of competence and capability
–> activities can be motivating in their own right and produce the experience of flow when the challenges of the activity match

Question 36

experience sampling method

Answer 36

participants are asked to report on their feelings, thoughts, and behaviors multiple times of day during or immediately after they’ve experienced them rather than evaluating them retrospectively

Question 37

what are the 4 most important characteristics of the flow experience

Answer 37

1. Being deeply involved in an activity (absorption by and in activity)
2. Merging of action and awareness (freedom from self-reflection)
3. Feeling of being in control
4. Distorted perception of time

Question 38

what are 3 ways in which flow is an optimal state

Answer 38

1. optimal state of motivation that represents a prototype of intrinsic motivation. The complete focus on the activity makes it possible to be focused on the action, even when alternative attractive activities compete for one’s attention
2. optimal experience; the positive quality of experience acts as a reward and increases the probability that an action will be performed again: the activity becomes intrinsically motivating
3. optimal performance; the flow state is “… one in which an athlete or other person performs at his or her best, seemingly without effort …”

Question 39

explain the relationship between passion and flow

Answer 39

flow can be seen as a consequence of passion; the more harmonious passion (activities people engage in because they enjoy them), the more people experience flow; obsessive passion (activities people engage in because they feel urged/compelled) does not predict flow but rumination instead

Question 40

what are 3 conditions of the flow expereince

Answer 40

1. Challenge-skill balance = matching of a person’s skills and abilities to the requirements of a task
2. Clear goals = they should be specific rather than general
3. Immediate (direct/informing) feedback on the execution of the action

Question 41

Which factors promote flow experience?

Answer 41

• Appropriate focus
• Effective preparation and readiness
• Optimal motivation
• Optimal arousal
• Positive thoughts and emotions
• Confidence
• Optimal environmental and situational conditions
• Positive feedback
• Starting well
• Positive team play and interaction

Question 42

explain the effort paradox

Answer 42

in sports, the giving of effort, in itself, can be intrinsically rewarding. In most cases, giving more effort results in a higher likelihood to reach a certain goal. However, when effort acts as an intrinsic reward, these effort-outcome instrumentalities may not be as influential if impactful at all. In this case, a sensation that humans generally try to avoid (i.e., effort) becomes a sensation that they actively seek out

Question 43

explain the cognitive evaluation theory

Answer 43

assumes that people are intrinsically motivated by nature
–> Cognitive evaluation theory suggests that external events can affect intrinsic motivation and that this can happen in three ways
- informational events; social environment provides information which allows the individual to feel competent and thereby promotes IM
- controlling events; eg. rewards, make people less self-determined, decreases IM
- amotivation events; eg. negative performance feedback that leads to feeling incompetent, decreases IM

Question 44

explain the undermining effect

Answer 44

when people were rewarded with money for a task that they originally performed intrinsically motivated, they were less likely to continue this task when the extrinsic reward (money) was with-drawn compared to a group of people who were not monetarily rewarded
–> people feel pressured by the social environment (directed by money) and respond quite sensitively to this restriction of autonomy

Question 45

explain the basic psychological need theory

Answer 45

three basic needs are conceptualized as being innate and essential for mental and physical well-being:
- basic need for competence
- basic need for autonomy
- basic need for relatedness (belonging t groups)

Question 46

Explain the difference between low need satisfaction and need thwarting

Answer 46

• low satisfaction of the need for competence can be experienced by an athlete who feels incompetent because he or she does not have the necessary skills to perform well
• an athlete who feels incompetent because his or her coach perpetually gives negative feedback without meaningful information (etc) realizes an active thwarting of his/her need for competence and experiences competence need frustration

Question 47

explain the organismic integration theory OIT

Answer 47

that motivation differences are captured in athletes’ answers to the question “why,” and the answers to that question can vary in the degree to which their participation is more or less self determined

Question 48

explain internalization of OIT

Answer 48

people can learn to endorse the value of extrinsically motivated behaviors; behavioral regulation can move along the continuum of self-determination and should ideally be reflected of autonomous regulation if we want high-quality motivation to be experienced

Question 49

what are 5 different ways of measuring intrinsic motivation

Answer 49

1. free choice paradigm; intrinsic motivation is observed, within a certain time window, and measured how long participants engage in a task voluntarily and without influence from the experimenter

questionnaires
2. IMI; captures the determinants (e.g., perceived competence) and consequences of intrinsic motivation
3. sport motivation scale; measures intrinsic, integrated, identified, introjected, external, and amotivated regulation
4. SIMS; measures four types of motivation (intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation, and amotivation) on a situational level
5. BRSQ; measure 6 behavioral regulations –> participants indicate their agreement

Question 50

what are 6 recommendations for promoting intrinsic motivation

Answer 50

1. Provide successful and flow-­ conducive experiences
2. Give feedback contingent on performance
3. Use verbal and nonverbal praise
4. Vary content and sequence of practice drills
5. Involve participants in decision-making
6. Set realistic performance goals