Lecture 6: Key concepts and the state of the art in research

Question 1

What are Schuurman (2020) main argument about the state of research?

Answer 1

Two main critiques of state of the art research:
1. Definitional debate
2. Over reliance on secondary sources

Scholars in terrorism often use media-based sources. While this would not normally be a problem, it can become one when the entire literature on a subject is based on them. This means that many works are designed based on data availability. Another problem is single authorship. Notwithstanding the critiques, the study of terrorism has had positive development in recent years, such as more use of primary data, different methodologies and multiple authors per article.

Question 2

What progress, challenges and directions does Schuurman (2020) identify?

Answer 2

• Methodological progress: The field of terrorism studies has improved its data collection and analysis methods, using more primary sources and less literature reviews.
• Persistent challenges: The field still faces problems such as lack of collaboration, low diversity of authors, and limited use of quantitative techniques.
• Future directions: The field needs to address these challenges and adopt more innovative and rigorous approaches to study terrorism and counterterrorism

Question 3

What does Radicalism Entail according to Schmid 2013?

Answer 3

Radicalism entails:
1. Advocating for social or political reform
a. Based on a conviction that the status quo is unacceptable while at the same time a fundamentally different alternative appears to be available to the radica
2. Use of either violent or nonviolent means
a. Can be non-violent and democratic (through persuasion and reform) or violent and non democratic (through coercion and revolution).

Question 4

What are the elements of extremism according to Schmid 2013?

Answer 4

Extremism has these elements:
1. Anti constitutional
2. Intolerant
3. Rejection of the rule of law
4. Use of political violence
5. Aim to create a homogeneous society
6. Reject negotiation
7. Embrace collectivity
8. Reject democracy

Question 5

What is the difference between activism and radicalism according to schmid 2013?

Answer 5

Activism is readiness to engage in legal and non-violent political action.

Radicalism is readiness to engage in illegal and violent political action.

However, it immediately begs the question by what standards ‘legal’ and ‘illegal’ are measured. If these standards are not grounded in international law (human rights law, humanitarian law, international criminal law), we should keep in mind that both authoritarian and democratic governments can make and change national laws so that one and the same activity can in the same place fall under legal ‘activism’ or illegal ‘radicalism’

Question 6

What is the EU Definition of Radicalization?

Answer 6

The phenomenon of people embracing opinions, views and ideas which could lead to acts of terrorism

Question 7

What are the main notes on Terrorism Literature?

Answer 7

Lot of terrorism research in quantity since 9/11, but the quality is lacking. 9/11 catalyzed research on terrorism and introduced many new researchers, and increased funding and societal relevance. But the field still has no accepted definition, one-sided topical focus and overreliance on secondary sources.

Question 8

Which fields of research are present in Terrorism research?

Answer 8

Multidisciplinary field of research
* Political science: influence of regime type, foreign policy
* Economists: influence of GDP, are terrorists poor?
* Social psychologists: role small-group dynamics
* Psychiatrists: mental health-related issues
* Media studies: role of reporting / propaganda
* War studies: terrorism as warfare
* Law: CT effectiveness, unwanted side-effects
* Critical studies: questioning key assumptions

Question 9

What is Radicalization vs Radicalism?

Answer 9

Radicalization = Process
Radicalism = State of mind

Question 10

What is Cognitive Radicalization?

Answer 10

What is your stance towards the actions of these organizations.

Question 11

What is Behavioral Radicalization?

Answer 11

The actions you undertake to promote the goals of a terrorist organization.

Question 12

What is the problem with Radicalization?

Answer 12

Cognitive radicalization is no conveyor belt to behavioural radicalization.

Cognitive rad. frequently linked to behavioral rad.
- BUT!
o Most radicalized individuals do not engage in terrorism
o Not all terrorists (primarily) ideologically motivated

Question 13

What is the role of idealogy in radicalization?

Answer 13

Ideology clearly important, but should not be overstated! Many (early) interpretations of radicalization do exactly that:

‘a progression of searching, finding, adopting, nurturing, and developing [an] extremist belief system to the point where it acts as a catalyst for a terrorist act’ (Silber & Bhatt, 2007: p. 16)

‘a process in which radical ideas are accompanied by the development of a willingness to directly support or engage in violent acts’ (Dalgaard-Nielsen, 2010: p. 798)

‘whereby individuals or groups come to approve of and (ultimately) participate in the use of violence for political aims’ (Neumann, 2010: p. 12).

Problem more pronounced in professional circles:

‘the phenomenon of people embracing opinions, views and ideas which could lead to acts of terrorism’ (EU 2002) ‘the increasing adoption among individuals and groups of an extremist way of thinking and action and the growing willingness to support and / or use illegitimate means’ (BKA, 2017). ‘embracing opinions, views and ideas which could lead to acts of terrorism’ (European Commission, 2005: p. 2)
Most people that radicalize do not do terrorism

Question 14

What is the Singular Outcome Fallacy?

Answer 14

• Not all of those who ‘radicalize’ adopt extremist views
• Not all extremists will act on their views
• Enacting extremist views encompasses more than terrorist violence
  Radicalization is not a conveyor belt with one outcome.

Question 15

What is the definition of radicalism and extremism?

Answer 15

• Radicalism is the desire for significant or fundamental change in the system. It doesn’t inherently involve violence.
• Extremism is a more intense form of radicalism that seeks change at the expense of other social groups. It often involves the use of violence.

Radicalism strives for far-reaching change, but usually without complete overthrow existing order and is not inherently in favor of violence as most suited means

Extremists differ in three important regards from radicals:
- Strive for far-reaching and often revolutionary change
- Unable to compromise
- Positively disposed to violence

Question 16

What is Schmid (2013) view on the differencne between radicals and extremists?

Answer 16

Schmid (2013: p. 10): ‘While radicals might be violent or not, might be democrats or not, extremists are never democrats. Their state of mind tolerates no diversity. They are also positively in favour of the use of force to obtain and maintain political power (…). Extremists generally tend to have inflexible ‘closed minds’, adhering to a simplified mono-causal interpretation of the world where you are either with them or against them, part of the problem or part of the solution.

Question 17

Is every terrorist radicalized?

Answer 17

Radicalism and extremism can lead to terrorism But: majority of radicals & extremists never become involved in terrorism
Vice versa:
* Not all terrorists primarily ideological
* Terrorism often used instrumentally

Radicalism & extremism in terrorism:
* Motivate & justify violence
* Tie individual actions to larger goals
* Provide a sense of purpose & immortality
* Provide cohesion to extremist groups