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Understanding human diversity > Lecture 5 - Personality: Historical background and contemporary theories > Flashcards

Lecture 5 - Personality: Historical background and contemporary theories Flashcards

1
Q

2 names/theories in early personality psychology

A

Galen - 4 humours
Freud’s tripartite model of psychology (1923)

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2
Q

Galen 4 humours

A

melancholic
phlegmatic
choleric
sanguine

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3
Q

imbalances in the 4 humours determine what

A

determine personality type and inclinations toward certain illnesses

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4
Q

melancholic humour

A

black bile

sad, fearful, depressed, poetic, artistic

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5
Q

phlegmatic humour

A

phlegm

slow, quiet, shy, rational, consistent

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6
Q

choleric humour

A

yellow bile

fiery, energetic, passionate

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7
Q

sanguine humour

A

blood

warm-hearted, cheerful, optimistic, confident

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8
Q

Freud’s tripartite model of psychology (1923)

A

Ego made up of superego and ID

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9
Q

ego

A

mature, adaptive behaviour

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10
Q

superego

A

moral, ethical values, parental

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11
Q

ID

A

innate desires, pleasure seeking, aggression, sexual impulse

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12
Q

grand personality systems (characteristics)

A
  1. Proposed multiple constructs organised on multiple levels
    2. Viewed the person as a unified and organised totality e.g. emphasising ‘self’ or ‘ego’
    3. Emphasised motivation that explains behaviours
    4. Emphasised personality development, especially during childhood
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13
Q

Allports definition of personality

A

“the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment”

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14
Q

what did Allport emphasise?

A
  • Allport emphasised traits – neuropsychic systems with dynamic or motivational properties – as the fundamental unit of study for personality
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15
Q

Allport’s concept of traits

A
  • Traits are not theoretical structures or constructs but are real and found within the individual
    • Traits guide and direct behaviour and enable the individual to behave in a particular manner
    • Traits are verified empirically
    • Different traits are not absolutely independent of each other but have overlapping functions
    • Stable traits can also change over time
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16
Q

what is proprium according to Allport?

A
  • According to Allport, proprium is the highest in the personality structure which consists of all aspects of personality and brings about inward unity and consistency in the person
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17
Q

how does proprium develop?

A
  • Proprium develops through stages, from development of sense of body to self-identify, self-esteem, and so on
    • In the final stage, the individual is able to look back on his varied experience in life, and then strive for internal satisfaction and a sense of fulfilment
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18
Q

what happens in the final stage of proprium?

A
  • In the final stage, the individual is able to look back on his varied experience in life, and then strive for internal satisfaction and a sense of fulfilment
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19
Q

how did Murray view personality?

A
  • Contrary to Allport’s emphasis on unified self, Murray viewed personality as constituted by (conscious and unconscious) conflicting voices
    • The primary motivational construct is need, which interacts with “press” (situation).
    • “Unity thema”, a dominant pattern of need-press interaction, was viewed as the central, organising motif of a person’s biography
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20
Q

Murray’s psychogenic needs:

A
  • Drawing on Freudian theory and his research, Murray (1938) formulated a list of 20 needs
    • Murray also differentiated between:
      ○ Primary needs – arising from internal bodily states and include needs required for survival as well as sex and sentience needs
      ○ Secondary needs – concerned with emotional satisfaction and include most of the needs on Murray’s original list
    • Needs differ in prepotency: unsatisfied needs are more urgent and dominate behaviour, taking precedence over all other needs
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21
Q

Murray primary needs

A

arising from internal bodily states and include needs required for survival as well as sex and sentience needs

22
Q

Murray secondary needs

A

concerned with emotional satisfaction and include most of the needs on Murray’s original list

23
Q

According to Murray, how do needs differ?

A
  • Needs differ in prepotency: unsatisfied needs are more urgent and dominate behaviour, taking precedence over all other needs
24
Q

Murray’s view on personality development

A
  • Murray recognized that childhood events can affect the development of specific needs
    • Later in life, needs can be activated by specific situations, known as press – because they presses the individual to act a certain way
    • Through early childhood experiences thema is formed, which combines personal factors (needs) with the environmental factors that pressure or compel our behaviour (presses)
    • A dominant thema, called a unity thema, organises or gives meaning to a large portion of the individual’s life, and becomes a powerful force in determining personality
25
Q

what did Cattell introduce in personality

A
  • Cattell introduced many conceptual and methodological developments into the field of personality
    • Like Allport, Cattell adopted traits as the fundamental conceptual unit of personality
    • But Cattell (1946) believed the essence of a trait was co-variation and “behind the scenes” factors
    • For Cattell, trait is a “mental structure”, an inference made from observed behaviour to account for regularity or consistency in behaviour
26
Q

what traits did Cattell differentiate between?

A

surface traits and source traits

27
Q

Cattell surface traits

A

represent cluster of manifest variables

28
Q

Cattell source traits

A

underlying factors that determines surface manifestations

29
Q

how any traits did Cattell come up with?

A
  • Building on Allport’s work, Cattell (1943) collated 4500 trait names, and finally reduced these to 171 key trait names. He collected ratings of these words and factor-analysed the ratings
30
Q

In 1970, what did Cattell, Eber & Tastuoka publish?

A

the Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire (16PF) which measured 16 trait dimensions

31
Q

Cattell’s 16 trait dimensions

A

reserved-outgoing
less intelligent-more intelligent
stable, ego strength-emotionality/neuroticism
humble-assertive
sober-happy-go-lucky
expedient-conscientious
shy-venturesome
tough-minded-tender-minded
trusting-suspicious
practical-imaginative
forthright-shrewd
placid-apprehensive
conservative-experimenting
group-dependent-self-sufficient
undisciplined-controlled
relaxed-tense

32
Q

what are factor-analytic studies of personality based on?

A

lexical approach

33
Q

what does the lexical approach assume?

A
  1. people encode in their everyday languages all those individual differences that they perceive as most salient and socially relevant
    2. frequency of use of personality descriptors correspond with importance
    3. the number of words in a language that refer to each trait will be related to how important that trait is in describing personality
34
Q

Eysenck’s model of personality

A
  • At the lowest level are the specific responses – any behavioural responses of the individuals to their environment
    • Specific responses that are found together in the individual make up habitual responses – the ways that individuals typically behave in a situation
    • Collections of habitual responses that the individual produces make up traits – relatively stable, long-lasting characteristics of the individual
    • Using factor analysis, Eysenck found certain personality traits that he believed were fundamental, referred to as super traits
35
Q

supertraits according to Eysenck

A

originally two: extraversion and neuroticism

36
Q

extraversion

A

○ Extraversion: Extraverts are sociable and impulsive people who like excitement and whose orientation is towards external reality. Introverts are quiet, introspective individuals who are oriented towards inner reality and who prefer a well-ordered life

37
Q

neuroticism

A

○ Neuroticism: Neurotics are emotionally unstable individuals, who may have unreasonable fears of certain objects, places, animals or people, or obsessional or impulsive symptoms

38
Q

what did Eysenck add to his model of personality?

A

3rd supertrait

39
Q

3rd supertrait added by Eysenck

A

psychoticism

40
Q

psychoticism

A

○ Psychoticism: Psychotics display the most severe type of psychopathology, frequently being insensitive to others, hostile, cruel and inhumane with a need to ridicule and upset others

	○ Eysenck’s identification of psychoticism originated from his observation of psychopaths, who are free from anxiety and fear, and are likely to be found within the prison population
41
Q

Eysenck’s PEN model

A
  • He claimed these 3 super traits make up basic structure of personality
    • Measured by the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)
    • He argues that about 2 thirds of the variance in personality development can be attributed to biological factors
    • Also suggested individuals who score highly on neuroticism or psychoticism are predisposed to develop clinical neurosis and psychosis respectively under adverse circumstances
42
Q

evaluate Eysenck’s theory

A
  • Pen model contributed to study of personality in 3 distinctive ways:
    1. It combines both descriptive and causal aspects of personality in one theory. This characteristic distinguishes the PEN model from most other trait theories such as the five-factor model
    2. the PEN model is comprehensive in description by proposing a hierarchy of four levels and by making a clear distinction among those levels, enhancing comparison with other trait theories
    3. Eysenck took an experimental approach to studying personality, which makes the model more testable
    • The EPQ neuroticism and the extraversion scales have good reliability, and have been shown to predict a range of behaviours
    • However, EPQ psychoticism scale has poorer reliability, and whether it really predicts clinical psychosis was questioned (e.g. Knežević et al., 2019)
    • Also, analyses of personality measures based on Eysenck’s model showed that the data are better explained by a 5-factor model than the intended 3-factor model (Costa & McCrae, 1995)
43
Q

Costa and McCrae’s Big five factors:

A
  • Costa and McCrae (1985;1987), the key proponents of FFM, describe these five factors as: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism
    • Costa and McCrae (1992) developed the 240-item Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) to these personality dimensions (with 6 facets in each dimension)
    • The shorter 60-item NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) is also available
44
Q

the big 5 model

A
  • The Big Five model is a hierarchical model (similar to Eysenck’s model), with each of the Big Five factors consisting of six facets or subordinate traits
    • The Big Five model is data-derived (the five factors are derived from analysis of data) as opposed to theoretically based
    • The Big Five traits are essentially descriptive and may suffer from the problem of circular explanation of behaviour
45
Q

HEXACO model of personality

A
  • additional factor to the five factor model of personality
    • Ashton, Lee, and Son (2000) found that among a number of studies in the USA, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Korea and Poland a sixth factor emerged
  • On this basis, Lee and Ashton (2008) developed the HEXACO model of personality, with a sixth trait Honesty–humility added
46
Q

What does HEXACO stand for

A

honesty-humility
emotionality
extraversion
agreeableness
conscientiousness
openness to experience

47
Q

criticism of the HEXACO model

A

Saucier (2002) criticisms of the HEXACO model:
1. In some studies the sixth factor correlated with agreeableness, raising questions in whether the HEXACO really represents six independent factors
2. There are other constructs that have been found to be independent of the big five and could be added as the sixth factor, e.g., spirituality and religiosity, sexuality-related traits
3. Some of the analyses to which Ashton and Lee refer are unpublished; among the published analysis, the first five factors are not precisely the Big Five

48
Q

General factor model of personality

A
  • Having factor analysed data from three samples of Slovakian adults, Musek (2007) found that a single factor explained much of the variance in people’s scores on the big five
    • Further, Musek found from the factor analysis that the five-factor model of personality first combined into two factors:
      ○ Stability (alpha) – conforming and being stable [conformity]
      ○ Plasticity (beta) – being open and capacity for change [non-conformity]
    • and these two factors reduced down to a single factor: the general factor of personality (GFP)
49
Q

interpretation of big two and big one

A
  • According to DeYoung, Peterson, and Higgins (2001), the Big Two represent very basic tendencies or dimensions of personality;
    • While Stability is linked to the neurophysiological functions of the ascending rostral serotonergic system, Plasticity is linked to the central dopaminergic system
    • Also, conformity measures are positively related to Stability and negatively related to Plasticity
    • Regarding the GPF, Musek (2007, 2017) suggested that it may reflect a psychobiological disposition that contributes to general social and personal adjustment or effectiveness
50
Q

criticism of general personality factor

A
  • Ferguson et al. (2011) argued that the correlations between the five factor domains may be an artefact (of e.g., social desirability) caused by self-report measures of personality
    • However, Musek (2017) argued that after controlling for social desirability loadings on the GFP remained practically the same
    • He also argued that “social desirability itself is probably more a personality trait than a response style… Thus, the correlations between the GFP and social desirability can perfectly fit the interpretation of GFP as a measure of social effectiveness or social efficacy” (Musek, 2017)
51
Q

what is missing in treat theories?

A
  • Under a hierarchical structure of personality with 5/6 traits at a middle hierarchical level, descriptions of personality are relatively rich
    • However, contemporary trait theories are mostly atheoretical (data- driven) and descriptive (non-explanatory).
    • They per se do not explain where traits come from, how they operate, and how they produce differences in behaviour
    • Fleeson & Jayawickreme (2015) suggested that social-cognitive mechanisms should be added to constitute an additional, explanatory part of trait theories, which explains within-person variation in addition to individual differences

Understanding human diversity (11 decks)

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