Lecture 5

Question 1

what is qualitative research

Answer 1

• systematic, interactive, and experiences based research method use to describe and give meaning to human phenomena
• conducted in naturalistic settings
• discovery oriented - explanatory, descriptive, interpretive
• data gathered is narrative and text based; gives voice to human experiences
• context dependent and reflective on multiple realities

Question 2

unique features of qualitative research

Answer 2

• emergent nature of the design: consideration of the approach and adapting to circumstances
• researcher-participant interaction
• researcher as instrument (researcher acknowledges their positionality requires reflection to be attention to one’s cultural, social, language origins, and perspectives)
• triangulation methods

Question 3

data triangulation

Answer 3

a variety of data sources (ex: diff times, settings, and groups)

Question 3

investigator triangulation

Answer 3

use of diff researchers w divergent background

Question 3

theory triangulation

Answer 3

use of multiple perspectives during data interpretation

Question 4

methodological triangulation

Answer 4

multi methods used to study a single topic

Question 4

interdisciplinary triangulation

Answer 4

use more than one discipline to study the topic

Question 5

assessing/critiquing rigour in qualitative studies

Answer 5

1. credibility
2. auditability
3. fittingness
4. authenticity

Question 6

meta-synthesis

Answer 6

• systematic review of qualitative research
• uses comparative analysis and interpretative synthesis of findings
• seeks to retain essence and unique contribution of each study included
• builds a critical mass of qualitative research evidence that is relevant to practice

Question 7

phenomenology

Answer 7

• used to answer Q’s of meaning of ppl’s experiences concerning some phenomenon
• important approach to use when little is known about the phenomenon
• based on phenomenological philosophy

Question 8

phenomenology philosophy

Answer 8

• based on critique of positivism
• goal: to understand the meaning of the experience as it is lived by the participant
• focused on experience
• object of study is the life-world or lived experience

Question 8

concepts of phenomenological research approach

Answer 8

• process of learning and constructing the meaning of the lived and human experience
• based on the critique and identified limitation of the positivist view
• the focus of study is the “life world” - the appearance of things
• intersubjectivity: the belief that other people share a common world - shared experience
• phenomenological reduction suggests that researchers need to acknowledge and be aware of their own beliefs and values

Question 9

structuring the phenomenological study

Answer 9

• research question
• researcher’s perspective
• sampling
• data gathering
• data analysis

Question 10

grounded theory method

Answer 10

• goal: to discover underlying social forces that shape human behaviour
• research Q: focused on a basic social process
• researcher: “grounds” the emerging theory in the data, and reflects contextual values, not his/her values
• sample selection: purposive; people who experience the basic social process
• data: interview transcripts, observation notes, memos
• data analysis: constant comparative analysis done during collection
• results: findings are focused on providing theoretical statements about the relationships between concepts to inform theoretical development

Question 11

ethnography

Answer 11

• research process of learning about ppl or a group of ppl from them: the aim of the ethnographic research is to combine the “emic” perspective w the “etic” perspective
• focus on social context or group
• ethnographic approaches
• researcher is the interpreter

Question 12

ethnographic process

Answer 12

• data gathering: participant observation, informant interviews, field notes, artifacts, art, video
• simultaneous data collection and analysis (cycles)
• interpretation by the researcher of cultural patterns

Question 13

participatory action research (PAR) and community based participatory research (CBPR)

Answer 13

• combines exploration of, reflection on, and action on social and health problems
• goal: to facilitate change within a community w the participants involved in all steps of the change process
• systematically accesses the “voice” of the community to plan context-appropriate action

Question 14

participatory action method

Answer 14

• research question: focused on who is affected by or has an effect on the problem being studied
• sample selection: purposive; ppl from the community who have varied perspectives, experiences, and background
• data: interviews, group sessions, observation, relevant documents, materials, equipment
• data analysis: distill all of the data into a cohesive set of ideas, patterns, themes to plan the action phase
• results: outcomes report, narrative, presentations

Question 15

the qualitative method that uses symbolic interaction as the theoretical case for research is:
1. phenomenology
2. grounded theory
3. ethnography
4. participatory action

Answer 15

2. grounded theory

Question 15

case study method

Answer 15

• research question: to trace operational processes over time
• used to: investigate a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-world context
• a single case - either individual, family, community, or an organization
• sample selection
• multiple sources of data
• data analysis
• results

Question 16

what qualitative research methods would be most appropriate to address: “what changes in practice occurred after the outbreak of SARS in Canada”
1. phenomenology
2. grounded theory
3. ethnography
4. narrative inquiry

Answer 16

3. ethnography

Question 17

Theoretical Framework

Answer 17

A structure of concepts, theories, both to construct a map for the study based on the philosophical/theorized belief or understanding of why the phenomenon exists
- What are the theories and ideas that your work is grounded in?
- What are the key concepts that your research intends on covering?

Question 18

Paradigms

Answer 18

Patterns or sets of beliefs, practices of researchers that guides knowledge development
- A community of like-minded researchers with similar ontological, epistemological beliefs

Question 19

Post-Positivism

Answer 19

Early perspective and belief that everything is measured objectively and know for certain that “x” is the truth -> quantitative approach

Question 19

Constructivism (Interpretivism/Naturalistic)

Answer 19

There are multiple truths and perspectives; we need to talk to people and hear what they have to say about their lived experiences -> qualitative approach

Question 20

Critical Theory

Answer 20

Builds on qualitative but has some mixed approaches; critical = taking action to make change and empower (through interviews, observations)
- “Critical Phenomenology” -> Qualitative research but looking to make change for a vulnerable group, an action-oriented social theory

Question 20

Ontology

Answer 20

The science or study of being; what is the truth and what exists? How can we sort existing things into categories? What are your beliefs about reality

• PP: Material world exists; we can study it, find out what it means and what it looks like; the senses provide an imperfect understanding of the external/material world
• There is one truth.
• CT: Reality is constructed by those with the most power at a historical point; understand the world shaped by those in power; reality is plastic (changing), imperfectly understood; must look at political, environmental contexts -> research empowers those without power
• The powerful decide what is true.
• CI: Reality is constructed by individual perception; to find answers, we must talk to people’s subjective truths as there are no absolutes; perceived frame of reference
• Truth is what you believe.

Question 21

methodology

Answer 21

Discipline-specific principles, rules, procedures guiding the research process. Distinct from methods; if methods are the recipe, methodology is the concept of cooking. It is the overarching approach to the study; if phenomenology (lived experiences) is your approach, interviews are methods
- PP: Logical steps, matter of fact, experimental/non-experimental, structure, hypotheses that are subject to testing
- Experimental Process.
- CT: The research process is empowering the participants in a transformative dialogue. It brings forth the context of suffering, conflict, struggle and increases awareness to incite change
- Participatory Action Research.
- CI: A dialogue between the researcher and participant. Focuses on interpreting the meaning of words, art, texts, videos to reconstruct meaning, understanding
- Phenomenology.

Question 22

post-positivist paradigm

Answer 22

Quantitatively studying things -> pictured like a house blueprint
- Looks to explain, predict, and control phenomena -> this intervention results in this (causation)
- Ex., pain will go from a 7 -> 4 if I give this analgesic
- Think: Positive Negative, Black and White, Right and Wrong; One truth
- Ontology: Reality is “out there” and we can study it
- Epistemology: Inquirer is independent, etic, from those researched; removed, disconnected
- Ex., “subjects” in quantitative vs. “participants” in qualitative
- Methodology: Emphasizes measured, quantitative data

Question 23

Constructivist Paradigm

Answer 23

Qualitative study -> pictured like a drawing, artist’s rendition of a house; creating a picture to help you understand ideas, less like a blueprint
- A.k.a., naturalistic or interpretivism; study people as they are in their natural settings; out in the field, going into homes, nursing units to see how they live
Looking to understand beliefs, feelings, opinions explained through words
- Ontology: There are multiple realities as we all have different visions of the world
- Epistemology: The truth is determined by an individual or cultural group; emic, insider perspective is needed to understand their truth
- Methodology: Interpreting and analyzing words, texts, art, pictures

Question 24

Critical Theory Paradigm

Answer 24

Critiques and changes needed for society; reconstructing what we know to be true; action-oriented emancipation* (sense of freedom given to those who are less empowered)
- Ex., a population needs better health, social services
- Ontology: Reality is constructed by those with the most power at some point in history
- Epistemology: Perceptions are determined within the historical context that sways people
- Methodology: Participatory Action Research (PAR)

Question 25

Inductive Reasoning

Answer 25

“Increase”: Start with experiences, details and move to a general picture
- Qualitative approach

Question 26

Deductive Reasoning

Answer 26

“Decrease”: Start with a general picture (hypothesis) and move to a specific direction (experiment) with two or more concepts; you figure out the details of how x causes y
- Quantitative approach

Question 27

Concept

Answer 27

An image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea (ex., pain)
- Major components of a theory and convey abstract ideas within a theory
- In pain, you might see falling off a bike, rheumatoid arthritis, emotional pain…

Question 28

Conceptual Definition

Answer 28

A dictionary definition with the general meaning of a concept

Question 29

Operational Definition

Answer 29

Specifies how the concept will be measured; what instruments are used to capture the essence of a variable?

Question 30

Variables

Answer 30

A property being studied that changes/varies (height, weight, health, illness status)
- Studies are conducted to see how changes in one variable relates to changes in others
- Ex., sex and mental health
- Some variables are very empirical (observable) and others are more abstract (inferred)
- Height/Weight -> Hb Level -> CV Fitness -> Communication -> Self-esteem -> Wellness

Question 31

Ladder of Abstraction

Answer 31

As you go higher on the ladder, you get more and more abstract in thinking or definitions; variables get harder to measure
- Variables -> Concepts -> Theories -> Frameworks -> Worldviews

Question 32

Frameworks

Answer 32

The conceptual underpinnings of a study that are often implicit; serves to offer a way to understanding of how phenomenon exists
- Theoretical: Structure of concepts, theories based on theorized belief or understanding of why a phenomenon exists
- ex., Social Determinants of Health seeks to explain why a lot of people are in shit
- Conceptual: Structure of concepts, theories to construct a map for the study; made from a literature review or from qualitative research
Purposes:
- Clarifies, delineates concepts and the relationships between them
- Identifies and states the underlying assumptions of a study
- Visual symbolic representation of concepts in a framework

Question 33

Theory

Answer 33

A set of interrelated concepts that serve the purpose of explaining or predicting phenomena
- A guide, blueprint depicting elements and their relationships
- Could describe, predict, explain, or control a phenomenon

Question 34

Models

Answer 34

Provides a perspective about interrelated phenomena; loosely structured vs. theories
- Visual or symbolic representation via schematic or statistical models

Question 35

Problem Statement

Answer 35

Articulates the specific research problem and indicates the need for the study
- Tells the reader what the problem going on is; identifies its nature, context, significance
- Needs to be broad enough to include central concerns, narrow enough to guide study design
- Quantitative: Identifies key study variables, possible relationships, and indicates population of interest -> verbs include “to compare”, “to evaluate”, “test to reduce pain scores”
- Qualitative: Identifies central phenomenon, research tradition (grounded, ethnography..), the group, community/setting of interest -> verbs include “to describe, discover, explore”

Question 36

Clinical Question Format: PICO(T), PICo, PEO

Answer 36

Helps you develop clinical questions in a format that is effective to be searchable in the literature; the basis of evidence-informed practice
- Population: The population of interest or individual patient with a condition/health problem
- Ex., 13-18 year old adolescents with type 1 insulin-dependent diabetes
- Intervention: The aspect of health care of interest to the nurse; ex., therapeutic, preventative, diagnostic, organizational interventions
- Ex., insulin injections
- Comparison: Standard care or no interventions
- Ex., no insulin therapy
- Outcome: What outcome are you measuring to determine efficacy?
- Ex., improved blood glucose control, HBA1c levels
- Time: TIme involved to demonstrate an outcome
- Ex., HBA1c level change takes months, weight loss maintained over years

Question 37

PICO for Qualitative

Answer 37

• Population: Who are you studying?
• Interesting Phenomenon: What occurrence are you interested in?
• Context: Where are they, when are they in life?
  Ex., elderly people receiving music therapy in nursing homes

Question 38

PEO for Quantitative

Answer 38

and Prognosis, Developmental Likelihood:
- Population: Who are you studying -> Children <12yo
- Exposure: What condition are they exposed to -> Soy milk exposure
- Outcome: What happens to them -> Peanut allergy development

Question 39

SPIDER for Qualitative, Mixed

Answer 39

• Sample: Who are you studying?
• Phenomenon of Interest: What is happening that you observe?
• Design: How is the study designed?
• Evaluation: What outcomes are used for evaluation?
• Research Type: What methods are used?

Question 40

Hypothesis, directional, non-directional, statistical/null

Answer 40

Researcher’s predictions about the relationships among the variables
- Statement of the specific empirical findings the researcher predicts to occur
- Test of the relationships between two or more variables
- Directional: Specifies the expected direction of the relationship of the independent/dependent
- Ex., There is a positive influence on workplace transition based on…
- Non-Directional: Indicates the existence of a relationship without specifying the direction
- Ex., There will be a difference in fatigue between two groups of caregivers
- Statistical/Null: There is no relationship between the independent/dependent variables