Lecture 5 Flashcards
what is qualitative research
- systematic, interactive, and experiences based research method use to describe and give meaning to human phenomena
- conducted in naturalistic settings
- discovery oriented - explanatory, descriptive, interpretive
- data gathered is narrative and text based; gives voice to human experiences
- context dependent and reflective on multiple realities
unique features of qualitative research
- emergent nature of the design: consideration of the approach and adapting to circumstances
- researcher-participant interaction
- researcher as instrument (researcher acknowledges their positionality requires reflection to be attention to one’s cultural, social, language origins, and perspectives)
- triangulation methods
data triangulation
a variety of data sources (ex: diff times, settings, and groups)
investigator triangulation
use of diff researchers w divergent background
theory triangulation
use of multiple perspectives during data interpretation
methodological triangulation
multi methods used to study a single topic
interdisciplinary triangulation
use more than one discipline to study the topic
assessing/critiquing rigour in qualitative studies
- credibility
- auditability
- fittingness
- authenticity
meta-synthesis
- systematic review of qualitative research
- uses comparative analysis and interpretative synthesis of findings
- seeks to retain essence and unique contribution of each study included
- builds a critical mass of qualitative research evidence that is relevant to practice
phenomenology
- used to answer Q’s of meaning of ppl’s experiences concerning some phenomenon
- important approach to use when little is known about the phenomenon
- based on phenomenological philosophy
phenomenology philosophy
- based on critique of positivism
- goal: to understand the meaning of the experience as it is lived by the participant
- focused on experience
- object of study is the life-world or lived experience
concepts of phenomenological research approach
- process of learning and constructing the meaning of the lived and human experience
- based on the critique and identified limitation of the positivist view
- the focus of study is the “life world” - the appearance of things
- intersubjectivity: the belief that other people share a common world - shared experience
- phenomenological reduction suggests that researchers need to acknowledge and be aware of their own beliefs and values
structuring the phenomenological study
- research question
- researcher’s perspective
- sampling
- data gathering
- data analysis
grounded theory method
- goal: to discover underlying social forces that shape human behaviour
- research Q: focused on a basic social process
- researcher: “grounds” the emerging theory in the data, and reflects contextual values, not his/her values
- sample selection: purposive; people who experience the basic social process
- data: interview transcripts, observation notes, memos
- data analysis: constant comparative analysis done during collection
- results: findings are focused on providing theoretical statements about the relationships between concepts to inform theoretical development
ethnography
- research process of learning about ppl or a group of ppl from them: the aim of the ethnographic research is to combine the “emic” perspective w the “etic” perspective
- focus on social context or group
- ethnographic approaches
- researcher is the interpreter
ethnographic process
- data gathering: participant observation, informant interviews, field notes, artifacts, art, video
- simultaneous data collection and analysis (cycles)
- interpretation by the researcher of cultural patterns
participatory action research (PAR) and community based participatory research (CBPR)
- combines exploration of, reflection on, and action on social and health problems
- goal: to facilitate change within a community w the participants involved in all steps of the change process
- systematically accesses the “voice” of the community to plan context-appropriate action
participatory action method
- research question: focused on who is affected by or has an effect on the problem being studied
- sample selection: purposive; ppl from the community who have varied perspectives, experiences, and background
- data: interviews, group sessions, observation, relevant documents, materials, equipment
- data analysis: distill all of the data into a cohesive set of ideas, patterns, themes to plan the action phase
- results: outcomes report, narrative, presentations
the qualitative method that uses symbolic interaction as the theoretical case for research is:
1. phenomenology
2. grounded theory
3. ethnography
4. participatory action
- grounded theory
case study method
- research question: to trace operational processes over time
- used to: investigate a contemporary phenomenon in depth and within its real-world context
- a single case - either individual, family, community, or an organization
- sample selection
- multiple sources of data
- data analysis
- results
what qualitative research methods would be most appropriate to address: “what changes in practice occurred after the outbreak of SARS in Canada”
1. phenomenology
2. grounded theory
3. ethnography
4. narrative inquiry
- ethnography
Theoretical Framework
A structure of concepts, theories, both to construct a map for the study based on the philosophical/theorized belief or understanding of why the phenomenon exists
- What are the theories and ideas that your work is grounded in?
- What are the key concepts that your research intends on covering?
Paradigms
Patterns or sets of beliefs, practices of researchers that guides knowledge development
- A community of like-minded researchers with similar ontological, epistemological beliefs
Post-Positivism
Early perspective and belief that everything is measured objectively and know for certain that “x” is the truth -> quantitative approach
Constructivism (Interpretivism/Naturalistic)
There are multiple truths and perspectives; we need to talk to people and hear what they have to say about their lived experiences -> qualitative approach
Critical Theory
Builds on qualitative but has some mixed approaches; critical = taking action to make change and empower (through interviews, observations)
- “Critical Phenomenology” -> Qualitative research but looking to make change for a vulnerable group, an action-oriented social theory
Ontology
The science or study of being; what is the truth and what exists? How can we sort existing things into categories? What are your beliefs about reality
- PP: Material world exists; we can study it, find out what it means and what it looks like; the senses provide an imperfect understanding of the external/material world
- There is one truth.
- CT: Reality is constructed by those with the most power at a historical point; understand the world shaped by those in power; reality is plastic (changing), imperfectly understood; must look at political, environmental contexts -> research empowers those without power
- The powerful decide what is true.
- CI: Reality is constructed by individual perception; to find answers, we must talk to people’s subjective truths as there are no absolutes; perceived frame of reference
- Truth is what you believe.
methodology
Discipline-specific principles, rules, procedures guiding the research process. Distinct from methods; if methods are the recipe, methodology is the concept of cooking. It is the overarching approach to the study; if phenomenology (lived experiences) is your approach, interviews are methods
- PP: Logical steps, matter of fact, experimental/non-experimental, structure, hypotheses that are subject to testing
- Experimental Process.
- CT: The research process is empowering the participants in a transformative dialogue. It brings forth the context of suffering, conflict, struggle and increases awareness to incite change
- Participatory Action Research.
- CI: A dialogue between the researcher and participant. Focuses on interpreting the meaning of words, art, texts, videos to reconstruct meaning, understanding
- Phenomenology.
post-positivist paradigm
Quantitatively studying things -> pictured like a house blueprint
- Looks to explain, predict, and control phenomena -> this intervention results in this (causation)
- Ex., pain will go from a 7 -> 4 if I give this analgesic
- Think: Positive Negative, Black and White, Right and Wrong; One truth
- Ontology: Reality is “out there” and we can study it
- Epistemology: Inquirer is independent, etic, from those researched; removed, disconnected
- Ex., “subjects” in quantitative vs. “participants” in qualitative
- Methodology: Emphasizes measured, quantitative data
Constructivist Paradigm
Qualitative study -> pictured like a drawing, artist’s rendition of a house; creating a picture to help you understand ideas, less like a blueprint
- A.k.a., naturalistic or interpretivism; study people as they are in their natural settings; out in the field, going into homes, nursing units to see how they live
Looking to understand beliefs, feelings, opinions explained through words
- Ontology: There are multiple realities as we all have different visions of the world
- Epistemology: The truth is determined by an individual or cultural group; emic, insider perspective is needed to understand their truth
- Methodology: Interpreting and analyzing words, texts, art, pictures
Critical Theory Paradigm
Critiques and changes needed for society; reconstructing what we know to be true; action-oriented emancipation* (sense of freedom given to those who are less empowered)
- Ex., a population needs better health, social services
- Ontology: Reality is constructed by those with the most power at some point in history
- Epistemology: Perceptions are determined within the historical context that sways people
- Methodology: Participatory Action Research (PAR)
Inductive Reasoning
“Increase”: Start with experiences, details and move to a general picture
- Qualitative approach
Deductive Reasoning
“Decrease”: Start with a general picture (hypothesis) and move to a specific direction (experiment) with two or more concepts; you figure out the details of how x causes y
- Quantitative approach
Concept
An image or symbolic representation of an abstract idea (ex., pain)
- Major components of a theory and convey abstract ideas within a theory
- In pain, you might see falling off a bike, rheumatoid arthritis, emotional pain…
Conceptual Definition
A dictionary definition with the general meaning of a concept
Operational Definition
Specifies how the concept will be measured; what instruments are used to capture the essence of a variable?
Variables
A property being studied that changes/varies (height, weight, health, illness status)
- Studies are conducted to see how changes in one variable relates to changes in others
- Ex., sex and mental health
- Some variables are very empirical (observable) and others are more abstract (inferred)
- Height/Weight -> Hb Level -> CV Fitness -> Communication -> Self-esteem -> Wellness
Ladder of Abstraction
As you go higher on the ladder, you get more and more abstract in thinking or definitions; variables get harder to measure
- Variables -> Concepts -> Theories -> Frameworks -> Worldviews
Frameworks
The conceptual underpinnings of a study that are often implicit; serves to offer a way to understanding of how phenomenon exists
- Theoretical: Structure of concepts, theories based on theorized belief or understanding of why a phenomenon exists
- ex., Social Determinants of Health seeks to explain why a lot of people are in shit
- Conceptual: Structure of concepts, theories to construct a map for the study; made from a literature review or from qualitative research
Purposes:
- Clarifies, delineates concepts and the relationships between them
- Identifies and states the underlying assumptions of a study
- Visual symbolic representation of concepts in a framework
Theory
A set of interrelated concepts that serve the purpose of explaining or predicting phenomena
- A guide, blueprint depicting elements and their relationships
- Could describe, predict, explain, or control a phenomenon
Models
Provides a perspective about interrelated phenomena; loosely structured vs. theories
- Visual or symbolic representation via schematic or statistical models
Problem Statement
Articulates the specific research problem and indicates the need for the study
- Tells the reader what the problem going on is; identifies its nature, context, significance
- Needs to be broad enough to include central concerns, narrow enough to guide study design
- Quantitative: Identifies key study variables, possible relationships, and indicates population of interest -> verbs include “to compare”, “to evaluate”, “test to reduce pain scores”
- Qualitative: Identifies central phenomenon, research tradition (grounded, ethnography..), the group, community/setting of interest -> verbs include “to describe, discover, explore”
Clinical Question Format: PICO(T), PICo, PEO
Helps you develop clinical questions in a format that is effective to be searchable in the literature; the basis of evidence-informed practice
- Population: The population of interest or individual patient with a condition/health problem
- Ex., 13-18 year old adolescents with type 1 insulin-dependent diabetes
- Intervention: The aspect of health care of interest to the nurse; ex., therapeutic, preventative, diagnostic, organizational interventions
- Ex., insulin injections
- Comparison: Standard care or no interventions
- Ex., no insulin therapy
- Outcome: What outcome are you measuring to determine efficacy?
- Ex., improved blood glucose control, HBA1c levels
- Time: TIme involved to demonstrate an outcome
- Ex., HBA1c level change takes months, weight loss maintained over years
PICO for Qualitative
- Population: Who are you studying?
- Interesting Phenomenon: What occurrence are you interested in?
- Context: Where are they, when are they in life?
Ex., elderly people receiving music therapy in nursing homes
PEO for Quantitative
and Prognosis, Developmental Likelihood:
- Population: Who are you studying -> Children <12yo
- Exposure: What condition are they exposed to -> Soy milk exposure
- Outcome: What happens to them -> Peanut allergy development
SPIDER for Qualitative, Mixed
- Sample: Who are you studying?
- Phenomenon of Interest: What is happening that you observe?
- Design: How is the study designed?
- Evaluation: What outcomes are used for evaluation?
- Research Type: What methods are used?
Hypothesis, directional, non-directional, statistical/null
Researcher’s predictions about the relationships among the variables
- Statement of the specific empirical findings the researcher predicts to occur
- Test of the relationships between two or more variables
- Directional: Specifies the expected direction of the relationship of the independent/dependent
- Ex., There is a positive influence on workplace transition based on…
- Non-Directional: Indicates the existence of a relationship without specifying the direction
- Ex., There will be a difference in fatigue between two groups of caregivers
- Statistical/Null: There is no relationship between the independent/dependent variables
