Lecture 4 Learning, Cognitive & Humanist Approaches Flashcards
Pavlov and Skinner
Classical conditioning Pavlov
UCS -> UCR
CS -> CR
Operant conditioning Skinner
Consequences of behaviour important: reinforcement, reward, punishment
Friendly person has been reinforced for being friendly
Stimulus-Response Model (Dollard and Miller, 1941, 1950)
-Integrates learning principles with Freudian theory
-Acknowledges impact of unconscious-comprised of ‘unlabelled’ drives/cues
-Personality composed largely of learned habits-associations between S-R
-Primary drives
-Secondary drives-Learnt (coping with primary drives) e.g. regular mealtimes
Social Learning Theory Overview (Bandura, 1978/1989)
-Do internal or external forces control our behaviour?
-Interacting factors in reciprocal determinism
Person Factors
Environmental Factors
Behavioural Factors
Bobo doll study (1963)
Learn to become us and behave as we do via observational learning and modelling
Simple, similar, type of behaviour
*Attributes of the observer
*Consequences of imitation
Social Learning Theory Explained
Internal self-regulatory processes
Self-efficacy as a self-regulatory
process
– Belief in ability to obtain a desired outcome
(Bandura, 1989; 1994)
– High self-efficacy and success (Bandura, 1977)
Increasing self-efficacy ratings – Personal experience
– Vicarious experience
– Participant modelling
Locus of control (Rotter, 1966)
-Behavioural prediction in specific situations
(Behaviour Potential = Reinforcement value X Expectancy)
-Summary: to predict behaviour in a particular situation, we need to know the
options & the possible outcomes the individual sees related to each option
-Novel situations lead to generalised
expectancies
– External (locus of control)
– Internal (locus of control)
Internal and External LOC
Stable personality characteristic
Internal locus of control
– Feel in control, empowered to change
External locus of control
– Feel powerless, helpless to change things
and dependent on others
Locus of control correlates with
anxiety
– More externals than internals among individuals
with MHPs (Lefcourt, 1992)
Mischel’s ‘Concerns’
- Stability of traits across contexts
- e.g. confidence in one situation, but…
- Interpretation of scores
from self-report measures - low relatedness; low predictive value
- Dynamic personality “system”
- Cognitive Affective Processing System (CAPS)
- Composed of Cognitive Affective Units (CAUs)
- e.g. representation of self, others, expectations beliefs
What is Mischel and Shoda’s (1995) model called?
Cognitive-Affective Processing System (CAPS)
Theory of personal constructs (Kelly, 1955)
Views on human nature
– ‘Scientists’, generating hypotheses from subjective data
– Each person’s ‘…processes are psychologically channelized by the ways in which he anticipates events’ (1955, p.46)
Personal constructs
Superordinate/subordinate constructs
– Constructive alternativism
– 11 corollaries
– Operation of the interpretative processes
creating our personal constructs
What is constructive alternativitism?
individuals perceive the world through their own unique set of cognitive constructs or mental representations, which they use to interpret and make sense of their experiences.
Kelly’s 11 Corollaries
Range of convenience
Communality
Organisation
Individuality - Personal constructions - aggressive vs assertive
Dichotomy - nature of personal constructs 0 good and not bad, allows for constructive alternativitism
Construction
Modulation
Choice
Fragmentation
Experience
Sociality
Rational-Emotive Behaviour Theory/Therapy (Ellis, 1958)
Central to Ellis’s theory (1976)
– Humankind is innately rational/irrational
– Two goals: i) To stay alive ii) To be happy
Rational Behaviour
– Helps individuals to achieve basic goals
Irrational Behaviour
– Prevents individuals achieving basic goals
Rational-Emotive Behaviour Theory/Therapy 2
Stresses subjective nature of
experience
Underlying concept
– ‘Men are disturbed not by things,
but by their view of things’
(Epictetus)
Human beings have free will
(Ellis, 1958; 1978)
The Basic REBT Model (Ellis, 1979)
A represents the activating event
B represents the clients’ belief system
C represents the emotional and behavioural
consequences that occur as a result
D for disputation
E for education
Maslow and Self-Actualisation
Human nature & human motivation
(1954, 1965, 1968, 1970 )
– Basically good
– Innate tendencies towards
growth & development
– Weak; easily overcome by
negative environmental influences
Hierarchy of needs (1970)
– Emerged from early work on animal needs
Hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1970)
Self-actualisation -> maximizing talents, finding meaning, achieving peace with self
Esteem needs -> self-perception, perception of others…
Belongingness needs -> acceptance, being needed…
Safety needs -> routine, boundaries, personal safety…
Physiological needs -> hunger, sex, sleep…
Roger’s Theory of Personality
Basic principles
– Individuals play an active shaping role
– Dignity & worth of human beings (1959)
– Phenomenological “nature” of reality
– Function within a perceptual or subjective
frame of reference (1956)
Self-actualisation
– Natural tendency, present from birth
*positive growth & development
* if SAT is not blocked (1959/1977)
Rogers’ 2
Organismic valuing (1959)
Positive regard/Positive self-regard
Conditional PR/ PSR
– Conditions of worth
Self-concept;
– Real self/Ideal self
Incongruity
Defence Mechanisms
Rogers’ Person-Centred Therapy
- The aim of person-centred counselling
- Core conditions (1959)
Core conditions of Rogers’ therapy
- Both the client and the therapist must be in psychological contact
- The client is in a state of incongruence and feels anxious about it
- The counsellor is congruent in the relationship
- The therapist experiences unconditional positive regard for the client
- The therapist experiences an empathic understanding of the client’s internal
frame of reference - The client perceives the counsellor’s unconditional positive regard for him/her
and the counsellor’s empathic understanding of his/her difficulties
Q-Sort Measurement of Self-Concept (Stephenson, 1953)
-A list of around 100 adjectives/short
statements describing personality attributes
-Sort into 9 categories (most and least like me)
-In relation to real self, then ideal self
