Lecture 4 Flashcards
Cognition
Internal process that affects external behavior. Wide range of internal mental activities, such as analyzing information, generating ideas, and problem solving. (language and logical reasoning)
Perception
Organization and identification of sensory inputs.
Information-Processing Models
Computer like models of cognitive functioning. Focus on input-output functions and distinguish between serial and parallel processing of information.
Cerebral Cortex
Where information processing takes place. the most recently evolved part of the brain. Divided into four lobes (frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital)
Frontal Lobe
Associated with motor control, decision making, and long-term memory storage
Parietal Lobe
Tactile information and contains the somatosensory cortex
Occipital Lobe
Visual information
Temporal Lobe
Auditory and olfactory information as well as emotion, language, and memory formation.
Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development
Four universal discrete stages that all children pass through at the same ages on their way to maturity.
Stage 1: Sensorimotor
0-2 yrs: Recognize their ability to act on and affect the outside world. Develop object permanence
Stage 2: Pre-operational
2-7 yrs: Children learn to use language but continue to think very literally. Maintain an egocentric world-view
Stage 3: Concrete Operational
7-11 yrs: Children become more logical in concrete thinking. They develop inductive reasoning and understand conservation.
Stage 4: Formal Operational
11+ yrs: Develop the ability to think logically in the abstract. Develop deductive reasoning skills and can think theoretically. Capable of achieving post-conventional moral reasoning.
Role of Culture in cognitive development
Children in western cultures are more object-focused while those in eastern cultures are more relationally focused.
Learning Theory
aka Behaviorist Theory - Language is a form of behavior and is learned through operant conditioning. (B.F. Skinner)
Nativist Theory
Emphasizes innate biological mechanisms. Language development is innately human.
Interactionist Theory
Emphasizes social interaction. The human brain develops so that it can be receptive to new language input and development and children are motivated to practice and expand their language base in order to communicate and socialize.
Broca’s Area
Frontal Lobe and involved in speech production. When damaged, patients have difficulty enunciating and speaking fluently but understand the language.
Wernicke’s Area
Temporal Lobe and involved in understanding of language. When damaged, patients can hear words and repeat them back but cannot understand the meaning. Nonsense sentences.
Intelligence
The ability to understand and reason with complex ideas, adapt effectively to the environment, and learn from experience
IQ
Intelligence quotient. Contains a verbal and performance scale. Intent is to predict school performance and correlates strongly with math and verbal skills. Every 15 pts above/below 100 represents one standard deviation above/below the mean.
Fluid Intelligence
Ability to think logically without the need for previously learned knowledge. (detecting visual patterns). Peaks in young adulthood and then declines
Crystallized Intelligence
Ability to think logically using specific, previously learned knowledge (facts, vocab, etc.) which remains stable throughout adulthood.
Algorithm
Step-by-step procedure that leads to a definite solution. Exhaustive and not the most efficient. (quadratic formula - factoring is simpler but cannot always produce the answer)
Analogies
Allow a new problem to be reduced to a previously known problem. Use prior knowledge
Trial and Error
Repeated, unsystematic attempts to solve a problem until the desired outcome is achieved. Very inefficient.
Heuristics
Mental shortcuts or “rules of thumb” that often lead to a solution. They can be timesaving but can also lead problem solving efforts astray.
Intuition
Based on personal perception or feeling rather than logic. “gut feeling” leads to a quick but potentially flawed solution.
Biases
Various tendencies to think in particular ways. can be helpful but can also inhibit problem solving abilities.
Functional Fixedness
Tendency to view objects as having only a single function.
Confirmation Bias
People tend to value new information that supports a belief they already hold, while they often disregard information that goes against their preconceived notions.
Belief Perseverance
People hold on to their initial beliefs, even when rational argument would suggest that they are incorrect.
Overconfidence
Information that should logically undermine confidence to some extent is overlooked. (example of belief perseverance)
Causation Bias
Tendency to assume a cause and effect relationship. (Correlation does not equal causation) Can lead to premature assumptions of a causal relationships.
Emotion
Multifaceted experience that is connected to thought, physiology, and behavior.
Amygdala
Within the limbic system and is chiefly responsible for the emotions fear and anger. Can respond to an emotion-laden stimulus without conscious awareness of the stimulus. (unconscious processing)
Prefrontal Cortex
Involved in conscious regulation of emotional states. Critical in temperament and decision making.
Hypothalamus
Regulates the autonomic nervous system’s sympathetic and parasympathetic functions, including the effect of stressors on heart rate, sweating, and arousal.
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Physiologically-based. External stimulus elicits a physiological response and that emotional experience depends on the recognition and interpretation of this physical reaction. (Since I am trembling, I must be afraid)
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Emotional feelings and physiological reactions to stimuli are experienced simultaneously. (I am afraid and I am beginning to tremble)
Schachter-Singer Theory of Emotion
Cognitive Theory - Two-Factor theory of emotion. For cognitive appraisal one takes into account both the physiological response and situational cues. Recognizes higher level thinking. (I am trembling and I am also near a bear, so my trembling must be caused by fear; I am afraid)
Motivation
Psychological Factor that provides a directional force or reason for behavior
Instinct
Biological, innate tendency to perform a certain behavior that leads to fulfillment of a need.
Arousal
Physiological and psychological tension. High arousal triggers attempts to return to an ideal and more comfortable level of arousal.
Drives
Urges to perform certain behaviors in order to resolve physiological arousal when that arousal is caused by the biological needs of the organism. Most contribute to maintenance of physiological homeostasis (Thirst)
Drive Reduction Theory
Focuses on internal factors in motivation. People are motivated to take action in order to lessen the state of arousal caused by a physiological need. (hunger, thirst, sex)
Incentive Theory
People are motivated by external rewards. Highlights the psychological feeling of pleasure that comes with receiving an incentive. (paycheck for going to work)
Cognitive Theories
People behave based on their expectations. People behave in a way that they predict will yield the most favorable outcome. (Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation)
Need-based theories
People are motivated by the desire to fulfill unmet needs.(Maslow) Hierarchy of needs.
Affective Component
A person’s feelings or emotions about an object, person, or event. “I am afraid of snakes”
Behavioral Component
The influence that attitudes have on behavior “I will avoid snakes and flee if I see one”
Cognitive Component
Beliefs or knowledge about a specific object of interest. “I believe snakes can harm me”
Foot-in-the-door phenomenon
Based on the premise that people are much more likely to agree to a large request if they first agree to a smaller one.
Role
Set of norms that dictate expected behavior in a specific situation.
Cognitive Dissonance
The conflict or inconsistency between internal attitudes and external behaviors.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
People have an inherent desire to avoid the internal discomfort associated with a mismatch between attitudes and behaviors. People either change their attitudes towards a situation, change their perception of the behavior, or modify the behavior.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Information processing approach to persuasion. Two routes to attitude formation and change defined by the likelihood that the person who receives an argument will elaborate on it by generating his or her own thoughts and opinions.
Peripheral Route processing
Occurs when an individual does not think deeply to evaluate the argument. Person is unable or unwilling to evaluate the situation fully or uses a heuristic method. (Follow this route when they are less interested or have minimal knowledge)
Central Route Processing
Occurs when an individual does think deeply and even elaborates on the argument that is presented. Appeals to logic and reason. (Follow this route when they are deeply invested in a situation)
Social-Cognitive Theory
Social learning perspective. Proposes that behavior and attitudes change through a system of reciprocal causation, in which personal factors, behavior and environmental factors all influence each other. People learn behaviors by observing others’ actions and consequences as well. People have a strong ability to self-regulate.
Stress
Strain that is experienced when an organism’s equilibrium is disrupted and it must adapt.
Cataclysmic Events
Natural disasters or war
Cognitive Appraisals
Personal interpretations of the situations that triggered stress. (primary and secondary) Describes the modulation of a fear response as a result of thinking about the stressor.
Primary Appraisal
Evaluating a situation for the presence of any potential threat. If a threat is present, a secondary appraisal is generated.
Secondary Appraisal
Assessing personal ability to cope with the threat. An individual who does not believe that they can handle the threat well experiences a greater level of stress than someone who appraises their own ability more highly.
