Lecture 3A: Respiration Flashcards

Energy Production and Primary Metabolism

1
Q

What is catabolism?

A

Breakdown of complex molecules

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2
Q

What do chemoorganotrophs obtain energy from?

A

Organic compounds

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3
Q

Organisms that obtain energy by oxidizing organic compounds and use them as both a source of energy and carbon are called __ (or __). Examples of organic compounds they utilize include: (4)

A
  • chemoheterotrophs
  • chemoorganotrophs
  • Examples:
    Carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, sucrose, starch)
    Lipids (e.g., fatty acids, triglycerides)
    Proteins (e.g., amino acids)
    Nucleic acids (e.g., DNA, RNA components)
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4
Q

Fermentation occurs in the absence of what?

A

Oxygen

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5
Q

Does fermentation require an external electron acceptor?

A

No

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6
Q

What are the two types of respiration? (2)

A

Anaerobic and aerobic

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7
Q

What is the electron acceptor in aerobic respiration?

A

Oxygen

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8
Q

Give an example of an electron acceptor in anaerobic respiration. (2)

A

Nitrate (NO3^-) and sulfate (SO4^2-)

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9
Q

What is another name for glycolysis?

A

Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway

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10
Q

What is glucose oxidized to in glycolysis?

A

Pyruvate

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11
Q

Is glycolysis found in both fermentation and respiration?

A

Yes

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12
Q

How many redox reactions occur in glycolysis?

A

Two

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13
Q

What type of phosphorylation produces ATP in glycolysis?

A

Substrate-level phosphorylation

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14
Q

What happens to pyruvate in respiration?

A

Further oxidized to CO₂

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15
Q

What happens to pyruvate in fermentation?

A

Used as an electron acceptor

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16
Q

What is the main electron acceptor in fermentation?

A

Internal organic molecules

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17
Q

What is the main electron acceptor in respiration?

A

External molecules (inorganic or organic)

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18
Q

Which pathway involves complete oxidation of the electron donor?

A

Respiration

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19
Q

What is the purpose of Stage I of glycolysis?

A

Prepare glucose for breakdown

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20
Q

Recite Glycolysis: Stage I: Preparatory Reactions (Energy Investment): Include the chemicals, chemical reactions, enzymes, ATP produced, and byproducts involved.

A

Glucose phosphorylation (first step):
- Reaction: Glucose → Glucose 6-phosphate
- Enzyme: Hexokinase (or Glucokinase in the liver)
- Use 1 ATP

Isomerization:
- Reaction: Glucose 6-phosphate → Fructose 6-phosphate
- Enzyme: Phosphoglucose isomerase

Phosphorylation of fructose 6-phosphate:
- Reaction: Fructose 6-phosphate → Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate
- Enzyme: Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1)
- Use 1 ATP

Splitting of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate:
- Reaction: Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate → glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) + Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)
- Enzyme: Aldolase

Conversion of DHAP:
- Reaction: Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) → glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
- Enzyme: Triose phosphate isomerase

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21
Q

What are the two products of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate splitting? (2)

A
  • Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)
  • glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
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22
Q

Which molecule is Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) converted into? Which enzyme catalyzes this reaction?

A
  • glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P)
  • Triosephosphate isomerase
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23
Q

How many ATP molecules are consumed in Stage I of glycolysis?

A

2 ATP

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24
Q

Do redox reactions occur in Stage I of glycolysis?

A

No

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25
Q

Recite Glycolysis: Stage II: Redox Reactions and ATP Production: Include the chemicals, chemical reactions, enzymes, ATP produced, and byproducts involved.

A

Oxidation of G3P:
- Reaction: G3P → 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG)
- Enzyme: Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
- Reduction: NAD⁺ → NADH

ATP Generation (First Substrate-Level Phosphorylation):
- Reaction: 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate → 3-Phosphoglycerate
- Enzyme: Phosphoglycerate kinase
- ATP Produced: 1 ATP per G3P (2 ATP per glucose)

Isomerization Step:
- Reaction: 3-Phosphoglycerate → 2-Phosphoglycerate
- Enzyme: Phosphoglycerate mutase

Dehydration Reaction (Preparation for Final ATP Generation):
- Reaction: 2-Phosphoglycerate → Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)
- Enzyme: Enolase
- Byproduct: H₂O (water is removed)

ATP Generation (Second Substrate-Level Phosphorylation):
- Reaction: Phosphoenolpyruvate → Pyruvate
- Enzyme: Pyruvate kinase
- ATP Produced: 1 ATP per G3P (2 ATP per glucose)

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26
Q

How many ATP molecules are produced in Stage II of glycolysis?

A

4 ATP

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27
Q

What redox reaction occurs in Stage II of glycolysis?

A

NAD+ is reduced to NADH

NAD: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

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28
Q

Recite Glycolysis: Stage III: Redox Balance and Fermentation: Include the chemicals, chemical reactions, enzymes, ATP produced, and byproducts involved. (Two types of fermentation)

A

Lactic Acid Fermentation (in animals and some bacteria)
- Reaction: Pyruvate → Lactate
- Enzyme: Lactate dehydrogenase
- Redox Balance: NADH → NAD⁺

Significance: Restores NAD⁺ for glycolysis, allowing ATP production to continue in the absence of oxygen

Alcoholic Fermentation (in yeast and some bacteria)

Step 1: Pyruvate → Acetaldehyde
- Enzyme: Pyruvate decarboxylase
- Byproduct: CO₂ (gas bubbles in alcoholic fermentation)

Step 2: Acetaldehyde → Ethanol
- Enzyme: Alcohol dehydrogenase
- Redox Balance: NADH → NAD⁺

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29
Q

What is the purpose of Stage III of glycolysis? (2)

A
  • Regenerate NAD+
  • Convert pyruvate into fermentation products under anaerobic conditions
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30
Q

Does Stage III of glycolysis produce net ATP?

A

No

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31
Q

What are two examples of fermentation products? (2)

A

Ethanol and lactate

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32
Q

What is the fermentation product of yeast?

A

Ethanol and CO2

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33
Q

What is the fermentation product of lactic acid bacteria?

34
Q

How many ATP are produced in glycolysis (net)?

35
Q

How many NADH molecules are produced in glycolysis?

36
Q

How many pyruvate molecules are produced per glucose?

A

2 Pyruvate

37
Q

What are two common fermentable substrates? (2)

A

Sugars and polysaccharides

38
Q

What must polysaccharides like starch and cellulose be broken down by?

39
Q

What is the central metabolite in fermentation?

40
Q

How are fermentations classified? (2)

A

By substrate or product formed

41
Q

What fermentation pathway involves fatty acid products?

A

CoA derivative fermentation

42
Q

Which bacterium ferments ethanol and acetate?

A

Clostridium kluyveri

43
Q

What is the ecological role of fermentation? (1 general reason; 7 specific reasons)

A

Organic matter degradation in anoxic environments.

  • Recycles nutrients (C, N, P, S) back into ecosystems
  • Supports anaerobic microbial energy flow (alternative electron acceptors)
  • Produces methane (CH₄) via methanogenesis (affects carbon cycle & greenhouse gases)
  • Facilitates denitrification & sulfate reduction (reduces excess nitrate & sulfate)
  • Used in bioremediation & waste treatment (anaerobic digesters, oil spill cleanup)
  • Enables microbial survival in extreme environments (deep-sea vents, sediments)
  • Essential for ecosystem stability and climate impact (methane emissions)
44
Q

What are two common fermentation products used in food? (2)

A

Ethanol and lactic acid

45
Q

What microorganism is used in baking and brewing?

A

Saccharomyces cerevisiae

46
Q

What determines whether Saccharomyces cerevisiae ferments or respires?

A

Oxygen availability

47
Q

Why does respiration yield more energy than fermentation?

A

Complete oxidation of glucose.

More info:
- Glucose is completely broken down into CO₂ and H₂O, releasing all its stored energy.
- In aerobic respiration, electrons from NADH & FADH₂ pass through the ETC, pumping protons to generate ATP via chemiosmosis.
- In fermentation, the ETC is not used, so NADH is recycled by converting pyruvate into lactate/ethanol, wasting potential ATP.
- Aerobic respiration: ~38 ATP per glucose
- Fermentation: Only 2 ATP per glucose

48
Q

What enzyme converts pyruvate into Acetyl-CoA?

A

Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Complex (PDC)

49
Q

What are the three key reactions in the transition step of pyruvate into Acetyl-CoA? (3)

A

1️⃣ Decarboxylation – Pyruvate (3C) → Acetyl group (2C) + CO₂
2️⃣ Oxidation – NAD⁺ → NADH
3️⃣ CoA attachment – Acetyl group + CoA → Acetyl-CoA

50
Q

Where does the transition of pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA occur?

A

🧬 Mitochondrial matrix (eukaryotes)
🦠 Cytoplasm (prokaryotes)

51
Q

Why is the transition step of pyruvate to Acetyl-CoA important?

A

✔ Links glycolysis to the Citric Acid Cycle
✔ Produces NADH for ATP generation
✔ Releases CO₂ (first carbon loss in respiration)
✔ Commits carbon to energy production or biosynthesis

52
Q

Recite the Flow of the Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle) with Enzymes & Key Points

A

Acetyl-CoA + Oxaloacetate → Citrate
- Enzyme: Citrate synthase
- Key Point: First committed step; condensation reaction

Citrate → Isocitrate
- Enzyme: Aconitase
- Key Point: Isomerization via cis-aconitate intermediate

Isocitrate → α-Ketoglutarate
- Enzyme: Isocitrate dehydrogenase
Key Point:
- NAD⁺ → NADH (first redox reaction)
- CO₂ is released (first decarboxylation)

α-Ketoglutarate → Succinyl-CoA
- Enzyme: α-Ketoglutarate dehydrogenase
Key Point:
- NAD⁺ → NADH (second redox reaction)
- CO₂ is released (second decarboxylation)

Succinyl-CoA → Succinate
- Enzyme: Succinyl-CoA synthetase
Key Point:
- GDP + Pi → GTP (or ATP in some cells) (substrate-level phosphorylation)

Succinate → Fumarate
- Enzyme: Succinate dehydrogenase (Complex II of ETC)
- Key Point: FAD → FADH₂ (third redox reaction)

Fumarate → Malate
- Enzyme: Fumarase
- Key Point: Hydration reaction (adds H₂O)

Malate → Oxaloacetate
- Enzyme: Malate dehydrogenase
- Key Point: NAD⁺ → NADH (fourth redox reaction)

MNEMONICS: I Kiss Some Sexy Fucking Males On Campus
(Isocitrate, α-Ketoglutarate, Succinyl-CoA, Succinate, Fumarate, Malate, Oxaloacetate, Citrate)

53
Q

What happens to pyruvate before entering the citric acid cycle?

A

It is decarboxylated to acetyl-CoA.

54
Q

What molecule does acetyl-CoA combine with to form citrate?

A

Oxaloacetate

55
Q

What are the key products of the citric acid cycle per 1 glucose?

A
  • 6 CO₂
  • 8 NADH
  • 2 FADH₂
56
Q

What happens to NADH and FADH₂ after the CAC?

A

They are oxidized in the electron transport chain (ETC) to produce ATP.

57
Q

What are three key CAC intermediates used for biosynthesis? (3)

A
  • α-Ketoglutarate
  • oxaloacetate
  • succinyl-CoA
58
Q

What are CAC intermediates used to synthesize?

A

Amino acids, cytochromes, chlorophyll, and other biomolecules.

59
Q

How is oxaloacetate replenished?

A

By carboxylation of pyruvate or phosphoenolpyruvate.

60
Q

What is the function of the glyoxylate cycle?

A

Allows using C2 compounds (e.g., acetate) and replenishes oxaloacetate.

61
Q

__ is a modified version of the Citric Acid Cycle that allows organisms (e.g., plants, bacteria, fungi) to convert __ (__) into __ by bypassing the __ steps of the Citric Acid Cycle.

A
  • Glyoxyalate cycle
  • acetate (Acetyl-CoA)
  • glucose
  • decarboxylation
62
Q

What are the two key enzymes of the glyoxylate cycle? (2)

A
  • Isocitrate lyase
  • malate synthase
63
Q

What reaction does isocitrate lyase catalyze?

A

Isocitrate → succinate + glyoxylate

64
Q

What reaction does malate synthase catalyze?

A

Glyoxylate + acetyl-CoA → malate

65
Q

Why is the glyoxylate cycle important?

A

It allows organisms to grow on acetate by bypassing decarboxylation steps of the CAC.

66
Q

Recite the Glyoxylate cycle: Include the reactions and enzymes involved.

A

1️⃣ Acetyl-CoA + Oxaloacetate → Citrate
Enzyme: Citrate synthase
Reaction: Acetyl-CoA + Oxaloacetate + H₂O → Citrate + CoA

2️⃣ Citrate → Isocitrate
Enzyme: Aconitase
Reaction: Citrate → Isocitrate (via cis-aconitate intermediate)

3️⃣ Isocitrate → Succinate + Glyoxylate (Key Difference from TCA Cycle!)
Enzyme: Isocitrate lyase
Reaction: Isocitrate → Succinate + Glyoxylate
Key Point: Bypasses CO₂ release, preserving carbon for glucose synthesis

4️⃣ Glyoxylate + Acetyl-CoA → Malate
Enzyme: Malate synthase
Reaction: Glyoxylate + Acetyl-CoA + H₂O → Malate + CoA

5️⃣ Malate → Oxaloacetate
Enzyme: Malate dehydrogenase
Reaction: Malate + NAD⁺ → Oxaloacetate + NADH + H⁺

67
Q

Oxidizes pyruvate to CO₂, generates NADH and FADH₂, and provides biosynthetic precursors.

A

Citric acid cycle

68
Q

Replenishes oxaloacetate when growing on C2 compounds like acetate.

A

Glyoxylate cycle

69
Q

Which pathway generates NADH and FADH₂ for ATP production?

A

Citric acid cycle

70
Q

Which pathway allows growth on acetate?

A

Glyoxylate cycle

71
Q
  • How much ATP does aerobic respiration yield per glucose?
  • How much ATP does fermentation yield per glucose?
A

~38 ATP
2 ATP

72
Q

Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle

Which TCA intermediates serve as amino acid precursors? (2)

A
  • α-Ketoglutarate
  • oxaloacetate

  • α-Ketoglutarate is a precursor for glutamate, which can be further converted into glutamine, proline, and arginine.
  • Oxaloacetate is a precursor for aspartate, which can give rise to asparagine, methionine, lysine, and threonine.
73
Q

Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle

What is succinyl-CoA needed for?

A

Formation of cytochromes, chlorophyll, and related molecules

Succinyl-CoA is essential for the biosynthesis of heme, which is a key component of cytochromes, chlorophyll, and related molecules.

74
Q

Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle

How is oxaloacetate replenished if depleted?

A

By carboxylation of pyruvate or phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) with CO₂

75
Q

What role does oxaloacetate play in gluconeogenesis?

A

It can be converted into phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), a glucose precursor

76
Q

What molecule provides raw material for fatty acid biosynthesis?

77
Q

Glyoxylate Cycle

What C4 and C6 compounds can organisms use as electron donors? (4)

A
  • Citrate
  • malate
  • fumarate
  • succinate
78
Q

Why can’t acetate be oxidized by the citric acid cycle alone?

A

The TCA cycle requires oxaloacetate regeneration, which can be depleted

Acetate cannot be oxidized by the citric acid cycle alone because the cycle requires a continuous supply of oxaloacetate to combine with acetyl-CoA and keep the cycle running.
* Acetate is converted into acetyl-CoA, which enters the TCA cycle by combining with oxaloacetate to form citrate.
* However, oxaloacetate can be depleted if it is diverted for biosynthetic pathways (e.g., amino acid synthesis or gluconeogenesis).
* Without sufficient oxaloacetate, acetyl-CoA cannot enter the cycle, leading to an accumulation of acetate-derived acetyl-CoA.
This is why organisms rely on anaplerotic reactions (e.g., pyruvate carboxylation) to replenish oxaloacetate and sustain the TCA cycle.

79
Q

What is the key intermediate in the glyoxylate cycle?

A

What is the key intermediate in the glyoxylate cycle?

80
Q

What happens to the succinate produced in the glyoxylate cycle?

A

It is used for biosynthesis

81
Q

How is oxaloacetate produced from malate?

A

Through malate oxidation

82
Q

Glyoxylate Cycle

What enzymes compensate for a shortage of C4 intermediates? (2)

A
  • Pyruvate carboxylase
  • phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase