Lecture 3: Perception, Attention and Eye Tracking Flashcards
define perception
- The ability to see hear or become aware of something through senses
The neurophysiological processes including memory, by which an organism becomes aware of and interprets external stimuli
Info through senses but it’s about how you deal with that
Info through senses is often a cue for memory
how do we perceive things
Info through senses but it’s about how you deal with that
Info through senses is often a cue for memory
why are taste tests conducted
Marketers will normally conduct a thorough testing phase to establish how best to formulate their product.
what occurred in Project Kansas taste test
– piloted a sweeter drink mixture using taste tests, surveys, & focus groups
what were the results in Project Kansas taste test
- 10-12% in focus groups were unhappy about the new product being sold as Coca-Cola
what happened when coca cola tried to pilot a new coke and when did this occur
April 23, 1985
Vocal, well-led, campaign against the new taste, meanwhile production of the old mixture had ceased.
o Challenging loyalty to coca-cola brand
o Biasing perception in focus group?
o Sweeter drink/formulation was so well taken – except 10-12%
o That 10-12% bit back- it wasn’t coke- its something different, not what have loyalty to
Backlash so strong that had to reintroduce old formula
o Now have new ways of new formuations- ‘family of brands’- coke 0, diet coke, cherry coke etc
how did coca cola create sensation transference
- Coca-Cola did not realise that the success of the brand came from sensation transference – tasters unconsciously add their reaction to the packaging/brand to their sensations of taste.
o If you change it- changes peoples loyalty
o Well known brand- likely to interfere with perception of taste (same if a perfume with smell) sensation transference
o Adding memory of brand to what they are already experiencing
what happened in Dubow & Childs (1998) study
gradually changed the taste from ‘classic’ to the ‘new’ sweeter mixture – participants generally did not notice this gradual change.
Small changes can occur to a product without anyone noticing if do it gradual enough
If done this people may have not noticed- ‘just noticeable difference’
Dubow= implemented changes which were just noticeable for a difference
what is webbers law
just noticeable difference’
- ignored by coca cola
-The ability of the sensory system to detect a difference between stimuli
DI/I = K
what are the negative changes in webebrs law
reductions in size; increase in price) should be small enough to be undiscernible
what are the poritive changes in webbers law
improved packaging or taste) should be enough to be perceived but not too much
In marketing have to keep just below level which is a noticeable difference
define the visual system
- The visual system is …. centrally implicated in learning, higher-order, cognitive-affective processes, decision making and its behavioural implementation and co-ordination. Yet, relatively little attention in marketing and consumer science is devoted to the role of such visual processes.
- Wedel & Pieters (2007)
where is the olfacatory bulb connected to and associated with
associated with smell
Olfactory bulb is directly connected to the limbic system in the brain, a system linked closely to emotion
o If want to elicite emotional response to a product so thinking of the smell of the product may be useful
when would you use the olfacatory bulb in consumer psychology
If want to elicite emotional response to a product so thinking of the smell of the product may be useful
what did hertz 1998 find
senses evoke equally accurate memories but scents evoke more emotional ones
what are the two main theories behind why might senses influence shopping behaviour
mood theory
cognition theory
either scent influences mood or our cognitions
describe the mood theory as to why might senses influence shopping behaviour
Individuals react to an environment by either approaching it or avoiding it, and therefore a pleasant scent will make them more likely to approach
Approach or avoid depending on scent- ambient setting
descudbe the cognition theory as to why might senses influence shopping behaviour
Individuals display greater attention to products when exposed to pleasant scents, but why is unclear
If you are a consumer you tend to approach more if you are exposed to pleasant scents
is there any evidence for the mood/ cognitive theory of why senses may influence shopping behaviour
o Little evidence for mood theory, some evidence for cognitive theory (Bone and Ellen, 1999
what are the different types of scent
marketer scent
product scent
ambient scent
what is marketer scent
scents used as a promotional tactic
Using scent to elicite positive response
e.g. smell of baking in a home for sale; new car smell
what is product scent
perfumes, air fresheners, etc.
Scent is the product- wanting to typify where that product is in the market
what is ambient scent
scents present in the retail environment; introducing odours to influence behaviour
Idea that scents can be present in retail enviro- designed to influence research in some way
what did Hirsch (1995) investigate about scent
scented Las Vegas casinos - 45% more sales
casinos in hotels open 24/7= potential for not amazing smells
introduced pleasant scents in gambling areas in casinos
sales went up- people more likely to go into those casinos and gamble when scent smells nice
what did Spangenberg et al. (2005) investigate about scent
when scent & music congruent products more positively evaluated
Using combination of scent and music too obvious? , xmas scents and smells with xmas music
what is the implications of Doucé et al. (2013) study
Shows difficulty in interpreting findings in these experiments about smell
what pretests occurred in Doucé et al. (2013) study
20 people confirmed that scent was pleasant
48 people confirmed that they did not notice a scent until mentioned, i.e. the scent was not salient
Just below smell threshold
36 people identified cookbooks and romantic novels as congruent with chocolate scent and least congruent were history and crime novels
what was the field test in Doucé et al. (2013) study
10 days in chain bookstore
Direct observation of approach and buying behaviour (goal directed)
what was found/ concluded in Doucé et al. (2013) study
A positive effect of chocolate scent on approach and buying behaviour for congruent books: Cookery books/romantic novels
A negative effect of chocolate scent on approach and buying behaviour for incongruent books: Crime novels, historical
BUT these effects did not carry through to total sales
Whats really happening here? Whats really having an effect?
Most people didn’t notice chocolate smell
what were the goal directed behaviours in Doucé et al. (2013) study
Searching for a specific book
Going to the cash register
Asking assistants about a product upon entering the store
Goals towards buying
what were the approach behaviours in Doucé et al. (2013) study
- Examining multiple books
- Reading book synopses
Lingering in the store and chatting to store personnel
Saw as positive approach behaviours which would measure
what occurred in Krishna et al 2010 study of scent
o Warm scents: Vanilla, cinnamon
Cool scents: Peppermint, eucalyptus
Cooling packs infused with cool scents were perceived to be more effective
Thought to be due to semantic congruency of olfactory and tactile cues
Used peppermint VS vanilla cool packs seen as ‘more effective’cool packs sensation transcripts?
Scents associated with coolness being added to a product which should be seen as cool, adds to perception and makes think more effective at being cool
Idea of congruency- meaning , positive effect
who investigated touch
- McCabe et al. (2003)
what did Mcabe et al 2003 find in their study about touch
o Consumers are more likely to purchase certain products such as clothing if they are able to touch the fabric
Asda removed the wrapping from several brands of toilet roll so that customers could compare them
Sales of their own brand increased considerably
Commonly associated with fabrics demonstrates quality of fabric when allowe to touch fabric
Not as well needed now due to online shopping???
what happens in congruent sound studys
- Some evidence that using conguremnt sound can influence product – music influences mood
Music can be used as a way of experimentally influencing mood
what did Bruner 1990 argue about sound
o Argued that music can influence mood, which in turn can influence consumer behaviour
If you can induce a pos mood in consumers- more likely to buy?
what did Gorn et al 1993 conclude about sound
o Music can influence the evaluation of products – provided that the customer is not aware that their mood is being influenced by the music
what did Chebat et al 2004 conclude about sound
o The tempo of music could be used to increase sales, provided that it was used appropriately
define the visual system
- The visual system is …. centrally implicated in learning, higher-order, cognitive-affective processes, decision making and its behavioural implementation and co-ordination. Yet, relatively little attention in marketing and consumer science is devoted to the role of such visual processes.
Wedel & Pieters (2007)
Saying: visual system centeral to our consumer processes- so consumer psychologists must ensure they are taking this into account
Little systematic research and assumptions
what are the three gestalt laws
law of closure
law of similarity
law of proximity
what did gestalt psychology argue
- Gestalt psychology argues that humans are biased towards seeing distinct forms
what is gestalts law of closure
people will tend to fill in any missing information, and in the process are more likely to focus on a stimulus
Argues that humans are biased towards seeing things as distinct forms- see things in a certain way- series of laws which bias us towards how we see things
Closure- people tend to see things even if they aren’t there- eg seeing a triangle
describe gestalts law of similarity
people will tend to group similar looking objects together
Eg packaging on own brands (eg tesco) follows packaging of major brands- using memory for branding in order to co-brand
describe gestalt law of proximity
objects that are close together tend to be perceived as belonging together
what is visual convention
Used to guide our attention on websites
When not well organised see as negative or not attractive
Way group – way of guiding attention and positive aesthetic appeal and appeal of product
what is Oranges mobile campaign
Brand aim: to move mobile phones to personal everyday use rather than business use
Brand conceived of as being warm, friendly, energetic and optimistic
Using the colour orange meant that the marketing campaign became very memorable and impactful quickly
Within 2 weeks 45% awareness of brand in the UK had been achieved
1994- relaunch of mobile phone (previously large and chunky)- called name of company orange
As influential back then as apple is now
Relaunch effective as used colour orange as a way of conveying meaning of the product
Sociable colour/ attention grabber
Things associated orange colour with – meaning of orange colour = implicit semantics to make more memorable and typify brand message
Also used by easyjet
what did Cyr, Head & Larios (2010) study investigate
- Wanted to look at effects of colour appeal- hypothosised that if colour scheme of website appealing- would effect other things of the consumer- more trustworthy/ satisfaction knock on effects of loyalty for product
what were the hypothoses in Cyr, Head & Larios (2010) study
H1 - Increased colour appeal
- increases trust
- increases satisfaction
H2 - Increased trust
- increases e-loyalty
H3 - Increased satisfaction
- increases e-loyalty
H4 - Effects of culture – on appeal, trust and satisfaction - Germans will ‘prefer’ blue (Cyr & Trevor-Smith, 2006) - Canadians will ‘prefer’ grey -Japanese will ‘prefer’ yellow
what measures were used in Cyr, Head & Larios (2010) study
o Questionnaire data
o Eye tracking data
o Interview data
what was concluded in Cyr, Head & Larios (2010) study
Colour appeal affects trust and satisfaction (H1/H2)
Trust & satisfaction are strong predictors of E-loyalty (H3)
All cultures dislike yellow schemes, but Germans prefer blue and Canadians grey (H4)
- Found that when tried to replicate earlier findings- all disliked yellow dispite what found previously-> need for replication!
- Important to be aware of national colour preferences- particularly for national products
No differences in the time spent viewing colour schemes
Interviews revealed that colour appeal produces feelings of beauty, positive emotion (warm, fun), harmony, etc.
Found a lot of positive effects
what is the mere exposure effect according to Zajonc 1968
- “ mere repeated exposure of the individual to a stimulus is a sufficient condition for the enhancement of his attitude toward it” (p.1)
o Effects of repeated exposure- series of stimuli for 2 seconds- nonsense words/ Chinese characters/ photos- wouldn’t expect to build in their appeal
what happened in Zajonc 1968 study
- Stimuli shown for 2 seconds
- 0-6 scale
- How ‘good’ is the meaning of Turkish words or Chinese characters?
- How much do they like individuals in photographs?
what is the explanation behind Zajonc 1968 study
o Previously seen items are processed more fluently
o Individuals generate positive cognitions/thoughts based on their experience of fluency
o Explained by processing fluency – what occurs when see something several times- better at processing stimulus
Ease of processing- attributed positively, not nessacarily aware of process
- This is NOT the same as saying that the more we think and reflect on an object, the more we will tend to like it – exposure, rather than cognition or thought, is enough. It is automatic.
- Been replicated many times – eg alter and oppenheimer
- ‘halo effect’
- Norman (2004 ) visceral beauty responses
o Responding by makig decisions very quickly- build up a halo effect
what is visceral beauty repsonses according to Norman 2004
o Responding by making decisions very quickly- build up a halo effect
how many pps were there in Fang, Singh & Ahluwalia (2007) study of the mere exposure effects on the internet
232 students from the University of Kansas
what was the procedure in Fang, Singh & Ahluwalia (2007) study of the mere exposure effects on the internet
Banner ads on the web page being read changed regularly
Participants saw target ads 0, 5, or 10 times
Participants rated ads after reading the web page
what was rated I lindgard et al 2006s study of the mere exposure effects on the internet
o Rated liking for 100 web pages seen for 500 milliseconds
Rated liking for 100 web pages a 2nd time to check reliability
Ratings were reliably the same on the 2nd occasion.
what were the results in lindgard et al 2006s study of the mere exposure effects on the internet
Really strong correlation of .9
When saw something = higher liking
Liking = halo effect
Showed that that decision instantaneous
what was found in Olivia et al (2004) study of the mere exposure effect- scene gist capture
Found that the gist of a scene can captured in a single glance/fixation
This includes both ‘bottom-up’ information – colour, surface, volume – and ‘high-level’ information – objects, semantic knowledge activation
Thus, gist is captured ‘at a glance’ at both perceptual & conceptual levels
Ability to perceive scenes ‘jist of scenes’- estimated time would take= 67 miliseconds
Stimuli using= decide what type of landscape they had seen- x1 countryside, with trees, x1 townscene, with skyscrapers, some similarity
At level of 67 miliseconds- could pick up sufficient info to make basic perceptions
Builds halo effect if you instantaneously like it
