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Mammalian Physiology > Lecture 3 > Flashcards

Lecture 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Homeostasis is not…

A

A state of equilibrium.

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2
Q

2 systems than govern/control homeostasis.

A

Nervous system and endocrine system.

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3
Q

Intracellular control.

A

Regulation in the cell by the cell.

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4
Q

Intrinsic control (autoregulation). .

A

Regulation within tissues or organs; one cell is regulating the activity of another.

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5
Q

Extrinsic control.

A

Regulation from organ to organ; can involve both nervous and endocrine signals..

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6
Q

Extrinsic control involves which gland?

A

Adrenal gland, which acts on cells at a distance.

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7
Q

Explain the process of a person sweating.

A

Internal temperature increases as a function of external temperature; body starts sweating. The internal receptors sense a change in internal concentration; drinking water increases the ion concentration and helps restore homeostasis.

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8
Q

Mast cell.

A

An inflammatory cell that contains histamine granules.; they mediate information.

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9
Q

Bone is which type of tissue?

A

Connective tissue.

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10
Q

Adipose is which type of tissue?

A

Loose connective tissue.

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11
Q

Bones contain which types of cells?

A

Osteoblasts and osteoclasts.

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12
Q

Types of dense connective tissues.

A

Tendons and ligaments.

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13
Q

Tendons attach…

A

Muscle to bone.

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14
Q

Ligaments connect…

A

Bone to bone.

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15
Q

Cell types found in dense connective tissue.

A

Fibroblasts.

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16
Q

Adipose tissue contains…

A

White and brown lipid droplets.

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17
Q

2 types of supporting tissues.

A

Cartilage and bone.

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18
Q

Characteristics of cartilage.

A

Light, flexible, found in the ear, cannot regenerate, and does not have its own blood supply.

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19
Q

Characteristics of bone.

A

Calcified and rigid.

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20
Q

Function of fibroblasts in tissue.

A

They generate protein fibres.

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21
Q

Muscle is an [blank] tissue.

A

Excitable tissue because it can get information from nerves.

22
Q

3 types of muscle tissue.

A

Cardiac, smooth, and skeletal.

23
Q

Characteristics of skeletal muscle.

A

Striated (these are sarcomeres, the functional units of muscle), long fibres, and multi-nucleated (needs to make many proteins).

24
Q

Characteristics of cardiac muscle.

A

Branched, striations (made of sarcomeres, the contractile proteins), attached by intercalated discs (allows the heart to beat in unison), contains gap junctions which allow cells to communicate to each other, contain desmosomes (attach one cell to another).

25
Q

Characteristics of smooth muscle.

A

No striations, spindle-shaped, sarcomeres are present but in a different form, can be found in the digestive, reproductive, and urinary tracts.

26
Q

3 types of neuron signals.

A

Excitable, electrical, and chemical.

27
Q

Glial cells.

A

Supporting cells of the nervous system.

28
Q

Neuron function and structure.

A

Dendrites receive the signals, signal is transmitted to the axon hillock, reaches the axion terminal of the pre-synaptic cell, and transmits to the post-synaptic neuron.

29
Q

How do cells gain functional anatomy?

A

Differentiation.

30
Q

Definition: differentiation.

A

Specialization of cells; a result of controlled gene expression.

31
Q

Specialization process of cells differentiating.

A

In an embryo, the cell is a blastocyst - totipotent, which are strictly embryonic. They can become trophoblasts. Adults have pluripotent cells - these are stem cells (no totipotent cells in adults).

32
Q

Where can we find adult stem cells in the human body?

A

Bone marrow, skin (any tissue that can regenerate), blood cells (pluripotent: can differentiate into different types of red blood cells). Ultimately, any cell that can undergo mitosis is a stem cell.

33
Q

Name the cell fragments found in blood.

A

RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.

34
Q

Importance of stem cells.

A

Undifferentiated cells can give rise to almost any cell type; stem cell therapy is used to treat spinal cord injury, cardiovascular disease, and Alzheimer’s.

35
Q

Process of taking stem cells from an embryo developed in the lab.

A

Add a fibroblast (somatic cell nucleus) to an e-nucleated oocyte (no nucleus). Stimulate the oocyte to start dividing, then take the cells (they are totipotent). Issue: external environment is not the same as in utero. Exposing them to certain growth factors can allow for them to become specific cell types.

36
Q

Concerns with transplanting stem cells into patients.

A

The cells could proliferate; once they are inside the body, we have no means of controlling them.

37
Q

Advantages of stem cell therapy.

A

Promising for treatment of neuro-degenerative diseases.

38
Q

Induction of pluripotent stem cells (iPS).

A

Done by the forced expression of 4 transcription factors: Oct3/4, Sox2, c-Myc, and Kif4. The fibroblast reverts to a stem-like state.

39
Q

Use of a virus to deliver the 4 genes (transcription factors) into the iPS cells to induce pluripotency in fibroblasts.

A

Process: fuse 2 undifferentiated fertilized embryo cells to make them tetraploid (4 sets of chromosomes), Tetraploid cells give rise to embryonic tissues, but not the embryo itself. Pluripotent cells were put into a surrogate mouse mother: the offspring was full of pluripotent cells.

40
Q

4 major structures of eukaryotic cells.

A

Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and organelles.

41
Q

Characteristics of the plasma membrane.

A

Encloses the cell, phospholipid bilayer.

42
Q

Characteristics of the organelle membrane.

A

Sacs and canals; similar structure to the cell membrane.

43
Q

Functions of the membrane.

A

Controls transport in and out of cell-urinary system, allows selective receptivity and signalling via transmembrane receptors (endocrine, integral proteins), contain surface glycoproteins (recognition molecules of the immune system), serves as an anchor for the cytoskeleton or ECM, cell signalling (provides binding sites), acts as a passageway for molecules (cell-cell communication for intrinsic control, and gap junctions for cell to cell communication).

44
Q

MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex).

A

Self markers (surface glycoproteins): unique to the individual and allows the immune system to identify it as “self”; they are recognition molecules that are the basis for tissue rejection. They help the immune system differentiate “self” from “non-self”.

45
Q

Self-tolerance.

A

The ability of the immune system to attack foreign cells, but spare its own normal cells (tolerates its own MHC).

46
Q

Non-self markers.

A

These are molecules on the surface of foreign or abnormal cells that act as flags to the immune system.

47
Q

Protein channels are important for regulating…

A

homeostasis and osmolarity.

48
Q

Explain what happens in he body during dehydration or increased salt consumption.

A

Eating a salty meal results in thirst; majority of the sodium consumed is in the extracellular matrix. The hypothalamus detects the change in osmolarity, triggering a thirst response (change in ion concentration across the plasma membrane triggers the thirst response).

49
Q

Process: adjustment of urine during dehydration.

A

Initial cellular response to dehydration is release of ADH (antidiuretic hormone), which prevents water loss (helps water retention. ADH acts on the distal tubules of the kidneys to increase water permeability by adding aquaporin channels to the cell membranes. Water moves out of the distal tubules of the kidney through these channels by osmosis, whcih decreases osmolarity. Overall effect: increased water reabsorption by the kidney and decreased urine flow.

50
Q

Vasopressin.

A

Level of water in our body affects our blood pressure.

51
Q

Why are patients with high blood pressure given a diuretic?

A

A diuretic will cause the release of water from the body, thereby decreasing blood volume, which decreases blood pressure.

Mammalian Physiology (10 decks)

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