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Mammalian Physiology > Lecture 10 > Flashcards

Lecture 10 Flashcards

1
Q

Central nervous system.

A

Brain and spinal cord.

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2
Q

Nervous system is composed of 2 parts.

A

Central and peripheral nervous system.

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3
Q

Central nervous system (CNS).

A

Structural and functional centre of the entire nervous system, brain and the spinal cord, integrates sensory information, evaluates it, and sends an outgoing response. Therein job of the CNS is as an integrator.

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4
Q

Peripheral nervous system (PNS).

A

Nerves that lie in the outer regions of the nervous system; cranial nerves originate from the brain, spinal nerves originate from the spinal cord.

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5
Q

Brain and spinal cord.

A

They send efferent responses; outgoing signals.

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6
Q

Efferent neurons.

A

They target mostly muscle and glands; they can go either to the somatic motor division or the somatic sensory division.

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7
Q

Organization of the nervous system.

A

Somatic and automatic.

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8
Q

Somatic nervous system.

A

Somatic motor division: carries information to the somatic effectors (skeletal muscle). Somatic sensory division: carries feedback information to somatic integration centres int he CNS from a sensory neutron to the brain.

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9
Q

2 types of output signals.

A

Electrical or chemical.

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10
Q

Integrating centre of the nervous system.

A

The brain.

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11
Q

A motor neuron is…

A

A muscle effector cell.

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12
Q

Automatic nervous system (ANS).

A

Without voluntary control; managing activities without cognitive input. Afferent (incoming) division and an efferent (outgoing) division.

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13
Q

Function of the efferent division of the ANS.

A

Efferent division sends information to the visceral effectors: smooth and cardiac muscle, and glands.

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14
Q

Visceral organs.

A

Liver, kidneys, bladder.

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15
Q

2 types of neurons within the ANS.

A

Sympathetic and parasympathetic.

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16
Q

Sympathetic neuron within the ANS.

A

Fight or flight; stress response.

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17
Q

Parasympathetic neuron within the ANS.

A

Rest and relaxing, taking care of daily activities,

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18
Q

ANS controls…

A

Heart beat, cardiac muscle, smooth muscle (found in almost every hollow organ), exocrine glands (secrete gastric juices into the intestine), endocrine glands, and adipose tissue.

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19
Q

Enteric nervous system.

A

Found in the digestive system; controlled by the autonomic nervous system.

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20
Q

Parasympathetic reflex of the historic phase.

A

Distension of the stomach caused by the presence of food triggers parasympathetic reflexes; there is increased secretion pop gastric juices. The presence of amino acids causes gastrin (a digestive hormone) to be secreted from the mucosa in presence of food.

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21
Q

Neurons can have stress response receptors.

A

Example: in the stomach.

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22
Q

Other than mucosa, which cells secrete gastrin?

A

Endocrine cells.

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23
Q

Sympathetic branch of ANS.

A

Controls heart rate i emergency response, causes release of norepinephrine to stimulate the sinoatrial node, which accelerates inactivation of K+ channels (cell becomes less negative), heart beats more forcefully and squeezes out more blood; there is vasoconstriction on the blood cells.

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24
Q

Sinoatrial node.

A

Changes how ions are let in and out of the cell. During a stress response, it closes which makes the cell more positive, allowing for neurons to fire faster; this increases the heart rate,

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25
Q

Swifter action potential in the heart.

A

Causes the heart to beat more forcefully and squeeze out more blood.

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26
Q

Epinephrine within the ANS stress response.

A

It cause constriction of blood vessels where you do not need blood.

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27
Q

2 major types of cells of the nervous system.

A

Neurons and Glial cells.

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28
Q

Neurons.

A

Excitable cells that conduct impulses.

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29
Q

Glial cells.

A

Supporting cells of the nervous system, they do not conduct information, but support the functions of neurons and provides growth factors in the nervous system. The central nervous system has 4 types of Glial cells. The peripheral nervous system has 2 types of Glial cells.

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30
Q

Which structure are Glial cells important for?

A

The blood brain barrier.

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31
Q

2 types of Glial cells in the peripheral nervous system.

A

Schwann cells and satellite cells.

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32
Q

In the peripheral nervous system, what do the Schwann cells produce?

A

Myelin.

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33
Q

4 types of Glial cells in the central nervous system.

A

Oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells.

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34
Q

Oligodendrocytes.

A

Glial cells in the CNS, form the myelin sheath.

35
Q

Astrocytes.

A

Glial cells in the CNS. Important for the blood brain barrier, they have podocytes that can protect cells, they can form tight junctions to prevent things from getting in and out of the nervous system.

36
Q

Microglia.

A

Glial cell of the CNS. Scavengers or macrophages, they function as a basic immune cell, and are triggered by inflammation.

37
Q

Ependymal cells.

A

Glial cells of the CNS. Line areas within the central nervous system, provide support, and are a source for stem cells within the nervous system.

38
Q

The neuron.

A

Dendrites receive incoming signals, which travel down the axon.

39
Q

Cell body of the neuron.

A

Control centre, where the nucleus and the DNA are located.

40
Q

Dendrites of the neuron.

A

Specialized processes mostly for receiving incoming signals, they increase the surface area of the cell through knobs.

41
Q

Axin hillock of the neuron.

A

Important for conduction of electrical signals. This is the origin: the site of formation of the axon.

42
Q

Myelin sheath of the neuron.

A

Important for insulating the axon and for efficiency of conduction of the electrical signal; can be damaged by disease.

43
Q

Electrical signal in the pre-synaptic cell.

A

If the sum of the electrical signal is high enough, it the signal is conducted down the axon until it reaches the bottom, where there is the synaptic cleft (filled with ECM and ions). The signal is then transferred to the post-synaptic cleft.

44
Q

Chemical signal within the neuron.

A

Pre-synaptic cell will push out a vesicle.

45
Q

The post-synaptic neuron is the target cell.

A

Output signal is either chemical or electrical.

46
Q

Most synapses are chemical or electrical?

A

Most synapses are chemical, except in the CNS where both electrical and chemical are common.

47
Q

Cytoskeleton of the neuron.

A

Made of microfilaments, microtubules, and neurofibrils, and intermediate filaments. Allow for the rapid transport of small organelles (act as a highway transport along the axon).

48
Q

Microtubules int he neuron.

A

Associated with motor molecules, like kinesis. Kinesins walk up and down the microtubules and transport the vesicles that are to be released from the cells at the synaptic knobs.

49
Q

Vesicle reaches synaptic knob.

A

Vesicle has to fuse with the cell membrane, causes a signalling event to occur (usually requires calcium t account for fusion and endocytosis.

50
Q

Release of the neurotransmitter.

A

Whatever is not bound tot he post0synaptic cell is take up by the Glial cells and recycled.

51
Q

A neurotransmitter must bind on which structure of the post-synaptic cell?

A

The cognac receptor; it is specific to each neurotransmitter.

52
Q

Which is the most prolific supporting Glial cell of the central nervous system?

A

Astrocytes; they release neurotrophic factors (growth factors) and help form the blood brain barrier.

53
Q

Which type of Glial cells serve as stem cells in the CNS?

A

Ependymal cells.

54
Q

Astrocytes form the blood brain barrier.

A

Cell extensions connect to both neurons and capillaries, thereby allowing formation of the blood brain barrier. They transfer nutrients from the blood to the neurons, they form tight sheaths around brain capillaries with tight junctions, strictly regulating what enters and exits.

55
Q

Blood brain barrier.

A

Specialized system of capillary endothelial cells (not as permeable as those found in the rest of the body). Transport is strictly limited by enzymes and tight junctions, as well as the podocytes of astrocytes, which surround the cells and block things from passing through.

56
Q

There is a double layer of protection in the blood brain barrier.

A

Was of astrocytes form tight sheets around the brian’s capillaries, and endothelial cells make up the walls of the capillaries.

57
Q

Tight junctions.

A

Cells are joined by “collars” of tightly fused material; molecules cannot permeate through the cracks. They hold cells together so nothing can pass through, like VELCRO.

58
Q

Liposome.

A

Spherical vesicles with a membrane made of phospholipid bilayer used to deliver drugs or genetic material into the cell. The lipid bilayer can fuse with cell membranes, allowing the content to enter the target cell. This is the Trojan-horse approach to getting past the blood brain barrier.

59
Q

Trojan horse approach for getting past the blood brain barrier.

A

Fill a liposome with a solution of DNA or drugs that will fuse with cell membranes; this allows you to pass through the blood brain barrier to treat disease.

60
Q

Microglia in the CNS.

A

Usually stationary, unless there is inflammation in the brainL they enlarge and carry out phagocytosis to remove organisms and cellular debris.

61
Q

Ependymal cells of the CNS.

A

Resemble epithelial cells, polarized with cilia on the surface; they can move cerebral-spinal fluid around the CNS. They are a stem cell supplier for neurons and they are important for compartmentalization in the brain.

62
Q

Oligodendrocytes in the CNS.

A

They hold nerve fibres together and produce the myelin sheaths in CNS. The myelin is a lip enriched layer that grows from a process.

63
Q

Interneurons.

A

Neurons entirely within the central nervous system.

64
Q

Capillaries.

A

MAde up of endothelial cells, but these ones have tight junctions.

65
Q

Multiple sclerosis.

A

Most common disease of the CNS. Characterized by myelin loss and destruction. We do not know what the exact trigger of this disease is, but the immune system starts recognizing the proteins making up the myelin sheath as foreign, and attacks it, causing damage to the myelin. This hinders nerve conduction. Early symptoms: foot falls sleep, feeling tired, clumsy, lack of coordination. Diagnosis can only be done by an MRI. Can be created by modulating the immune system, but causes a side effect of inflammation.

66
Q

Schwann cells in the PNS.

A

Equivalent to oligodendrocytes: support nerve fibres, can form myelin sheath with Nodes of Ranvier. They have 2 roles: myelin production and connecting multiple nerve fibres.

67
Q

Which structure is found in the myelin sheaths of the PNS?

A

Nodes of Ranvier, which are important for conduction of impulses along nerve fibres.

68
Q

Do all Schwann cells make myelin?

A

No, some only have a supporting role.; these form unmyelinated nerve fibres.

69
Q

Formation of myelin in Schwann cells.

A

Nucleus of the Schwann cell wraps itself around the axon of the neuron many times to insulate it.

70
Q

Nodes of Ranvier.

A

Unmyelinated spaces of the Schwann cells; electrical signal jumps from node of Ranvier to Node of Ranvier.

71
Q

Role of satellite cells in the PNS.

A

They cover and support neurone cell bodies int eh PNS. They do not form the myelin sheath.

72
Q

Functional regions of the neuron.

A

Input zone, summation zone, conduction zone, output zone.

73
Q

Input zone of the neuron.

A

Receives information at the dendrites and cell body.

74
Q

Summation zone.

A

Nerve signals combine on the axon hillock (origin of the axon). If the sum reaches threshold, a signal is fired.

75
Q

Conduction zone.

A

generation of an action potential causes the electrical signal to travel down the axon due to movement of ions and saltatory conduction. The axon has many voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels. They generate an electrical signal.

76
Q

Output zone

A

Knobs of the axon in the synaptic region, They contain many Ca2+ channels; the electrical signal causes these channels to open. Vesicle fuses to the cell membrane with the help of calcium and releases its contents.

77
Q

Which zone of the neuron determines whether the electrical signal is high enough to reach threshold?

A

The summation zone.

78
Q

Afferent neurons.

A

Incoming sensory neurons; condunct impulses along the spinal cord or brian.

79
Q

Efferent neurons.

A

Motor neurons; conduct impulses away from the spinal cord or brain and toward muscular or glandular tissue. It can cause muscle contraction ir secretion of a hormone from a gland.

80
Q

Interneurons.

A

Only found within the CNS. Conducts impulses from sensory neurons (afferent) to motor neurons.

81
Q

Reflex arc within the CNS.

A

A signal conduction route to and from the CNS, with the electrical signal beginning in receptors and ending in effectors.

82
Q

3-neuron arc.

A

Most common reflex arc: consists of afferent neurons, interneurons, and efferent neurons. Process: a sensory receptor sends a message to the CNS, reaches the interneuron, where an efferent (outgoing) response is released to the somatic division of the CNS.

83
Q

Nerves.

A

Within the PNS, bundles of peripheral nerve fibres (axons) held together by layers of connective tissue.

84
Q

Tracts.

A

Within the CNS. Bundles of nerve fibres, but they are called tracts rather than nerves. They are surrounded by connective tissue which form the membrane called the perineurium. There is blood supply: source of nutrients and a way to remove waste.

Mammalian Physiology (10 decks)

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